I. PUBLIC RECREATIONAL FACILITIES

At the present time, when outdoor recreational facilities are being provided at great expense under governmental as well as private auspices, it is difficult to realize that public opinion in favor of such a program was only in the early stages of its development a generation ago.3 The change from horticultural to recreational parks, the establishment of public playgrounds for children and the construction of athletic fields and other pubic recreational facilities had made little headway at the beginning of the present century. The changed emphasis in the realm of play and recreation, and the transformation it has wrought in the physical layout of cities as well as in the habits and customs of the people constitute a most interesting study.

3 For relation of recreation to public welfare and social work, see Chaps. XXIII, XXIV, and XXV.

New Emphasis upon Parks as Public Playgrounds.—Prior to 1900 the idea prevailed that parks should provide for the quiet enjoyment of well landscaped or wooded areas. Formal gardens were laid out, scenic vistas created, and driveways provided a vantage points from which the scenic beauty of the park could be enjoyed. No provision was made for active games and sports.

The recent emphasis upon parks as playgrounds for the people, adults as well as children, represents a departure which stands in striking contrast to their earlier and more limited uses. Without any great sacrifice of their aesthetic appeal, municipal parks have been turned into attractive recreation areas equipped for the enjoyment of sports of various kinds. They provide children's playgrounds, tennis courts, baseball and playground ball diamonds, horseshoe courts, basket ball courts, football fields, croquet courts, volley ball courts, skating rinks, boats, canoes and swimming pools. Other sports less commonly provided for are archery, bowling on the green, golf, hockey, polo, roque, sailing, casting, skiing and tobogganing. In addition, municipal parks often provide buildings which are used for social, educational and recreational purposes, such as art galleries, band stands, club houses, conservatories, fields houses, gymnasiums, grand stands, moving picture booths museums, outdoor theaters, dancing pavilions and zoological gardens.

This remarkable expansion in recreational equipment brought to the general public a wide variety of facilities for the enjoyment of outdoor games and sports which had hitherto been available only for the privileged few. Since this change coincided with the shortening of the work day and 005915the consequent increase of leisure time for the mass of the people, it is of great significance.

Recent Growth of Municipal Parks.—The municipal park movement gained momentum in the larger cities during the closing decades of the last century, but popular interest in the development of parks in all cities, large and small, is characteristic of the past 25 years. The park acreage for cities of 30,000 population or more increased from 76,566 in 1907 to 258,697 in 1930, a gain of 237.8 per cent, while the urban population increased approximately 65 percent.4 The expansion of municipal park properties has been especially notable during recent years. Two extensive park surveys made in 1925-1926 and in 1930 by the National Recreation Association and the United States of Labor Statistics show that the park acreage in 584 cities increased from 201,445 to 279,257, a gain of more than 77,000 acres during the five year period.5 Unfortunately, it has not been possible to assemble complete information on park acreage for the whole country. In the 1930 survey, 898 cities with a population of 5,000 and over reported 11,686 parks containing 308,804 acres. In view of the large number of cities from which reports could not be secured, a conservative estimate of the total municipal park acreage would be at least 350,000, which is approximately one acre of park land to every 183 urban residents. If one acre of park land to every 100 persons is accepted as a reasonable standard for municipalities, then the cities of 5,000 and over in 1930 had somewhat more than half of the park acreage needed to attain this goal. It is significant that all but three of the 174 cities reported in the 1930 survey as having no parks belonged to the 5,000 to 25,000 population group. While complete data concerning the smaller municipalities are lacking, the existing evidence points to a serious retardation of the park movement in such cities. On the whole, in spite of the congestion of population in large cities, those residing in these great urban centers frequently have far better facilities for organized forms of outdoor recreation than those living in the less crowded cities and towns.

4 U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Cities Having Population of Over 30,000, 1907; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Park Recreation Areas in the United States, Bulletin no. 565, 1932.5 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Park Recreation Areas in the United States, Bulletin no. 462, 1928; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Park Recreation Areas in the United States, Bulletin no. 565, 1932.

No nationwide figures are available showing the extent to which municipal parks throughout the country are used. Many millions of people throng them during the summer months and it is becoming more and more common to equip them for winter sports. So rapidly have these parks developed and so well equipped are they with recreational facilities, that they now constitute the major resource of the urban population for outdoor recreation. The capital invested in municipal parks is estimated 006916to be well over one billion dollars, and for operation and maintenance more than 100,000,000 dollars are spent annually.6 The widespread use of the parks by all classes of people is bringing an increasing strain upon their resources, especially during the week ends of the summer months, and is strengthening the popular demand for more extensive park development.

6 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Park Recreation Areas in the United States, Bulletin no. 462, 1928.

A recent trend in municipal systems is the acquirement of tracts of land for park purpose outside the corporate limits of the city. Improved means of transportation have greatly extended the distances which people can travel comfortably is quest of recreation; and as a result there is a growing demand for extensive park areas adjacent to cities where leisure can be enjoyed in rural surroundings. In 1930, 186 cities, located in 41 states, reported 381 outlying parks containing 89,196 acres.7 The park resources of some of the largest metropolitan centers have recently been supplemented by county and state parks so located as to be available to urban residents. The Cook County Forest Preserves near Chicago, the Westchester County Park System and the Palisades Interstate Park near New York City, and the Los Angeles County parks are examples of extensive park reservations in metropolitan regions. This enlargement of the recreational areas of urban centers is especially important in view of the growing popularity of golf and other games and sports that require extensive space for their enjoyment. The breaking down of the barriers of distance has been accompanied by changes in recreational facilities and activities adapted to the increasing mobility of the people.

7 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Park Recreation Areas in the United States, Bulletin no. 565, 1932.

Development of Children's Playgrounds.8—Along with the growth of municipal parks, there has been a widespread movement to provide public playgrounds for children living in the congested districts of large cities. The initial impetus for this movement came from private philanthropy, but its later development has been under governmental auspices, usually under park boards, municipal recreation departments and school authorities. Very few public playgrounds were in existence at the opening of the present century and by 1910 the playground movement had begun to make headway in only about 180 cities.9

8 See additional materials in Chap. XV.9 This and the following information concerning playgrounds has been compiled from the yearbooks of the National Recreation Association. The number of cities reporting playgrounds and the number of playgrounds differ somewhat from the figures given by the National Recreation Association. This is explained by the fact that in this chapter towns under 2,500 population are excluded, as well as all Canadian cities. Moreover, the totals given in the yearbooks frequently include towns and small cities about which there is not sufficient information to justify their inclusion in the statistical tables from which this chapter was compiled.007917Cities reporting playgroundsPublic playgroundsYearNumberPercent of all citiesPercent increase by decadesNumberNumber per 100,000 urban populationPercent increase by decades19101807.51,8003.0192042815.4137.74,1397.6218.3193069522.062.37,24010.574.9

Table 1.—Cities of 2,500 Population or More Reporting Public Playgroundsand Number of Such Playground, 1910-1030a

a Compiled from the yearbooks of the National Recreation Association and the volumes on population of the U. S. Bureau of the Census for the years indicated.

In 1920 the cities above 2,500 population that maintained public playgrounds numbered 428. In 1930 they had increased to 695. During this ten year period th number of playground grew from 4,139 to 7,240, a gain of 74.9 percent. Their growth has been more rapid than city population, for in 1910 there were 3 playgrounds per 100,000 urban population; in 1920, 7.6 per 100,000; and in 1930, 10.5. While this progress may seem commendable, three-fourths of the cities, mostly those belonging to the smaller population classes, failed to report any playgrounds in 1930. In that year there was an average of less than one playground for every 3,000 urban children.

Public playgrounds were first intended for use during the summer vacation only, and the great majority still remain seasonal in character. In 1910, 17.6 percent of the playground reported were operating on a year round schedule, and in 1930 the percentage belonging to this class had increased to only 18.2. Climatic factor, of course, partly explain the continued emphasis upon seasonal use but it is noteworthy that summer playgrounds are frequently found in cities located in sections of the country where year round outdoor play is not hampered by inclement weather. The recent development of facilities for outdoor winter sports in the north, and the building of field houses in the park of some of the large cities are indications of a growing tendency to make public provision for play throughout the year.

Emphasis in playground construction has been changing rapidly in the direction of facilities for different kinds of games. The earlier playgrounds had some open space for team games, but no effort was made to provide for a large variety of sports of this type. Attention centered mainly upon play activities which required a minimum of equipment and little in the way of specially constructed grounds. In 1910, only a small number of special playground activities formed a part of the regular program, but in 1930 they had become so numerous and diversified that 008918they occupied a position of importance closely rivaling that held by the more traditional types of games and sports. Among some of the most popular special activities now carried on the playgrounds are art work, badge tests, folk dancing, social dancing, handicraft, holiday celebrations, model aircraft, motion pictures, nature study, band concerts, community singing, pageants and plays.

When the first playgrounds were established, the general opinion prevailed that children's play would proceed satisfactorily if suitable facilities were provided. Later experience proved that without competent supervision by play leaders the playgrounds were almost a complete failure. In 1910, the number of play supervisors employed was 3,345 and 20 years later they had increased to 24,949. Between 1920 and 1930 the number of supervisor considerably more than doubled while the number of playgrounds increased 75 percent, showing an unmistakable trend in the direction of better supervision of playgrounds by persons technically trained for their task.

Public School Recreational Facilities.—While the school yard has traditionally been a part of the American public school plant, adequate play space for all children has but recently been considered a vital necessity to the educational program. Unfortunately, the small school yards of a generation ago are still to be seen in large numbers, and in many cases their size has suffered a reduction through the erection of the addition school building. According to a recent survey 20 percent of the elementary schools in cities having a population of 30,000 to 100,000 had no playgrounds and scarcely 50 percent of the city high schools were provided with either playground or athletic fields.10

10 U. S. Bureau of Education, Marie M. Ready, Physical Education in City Public Schools, Physical Education series, no. 10, 1929, pp. 92-93, 99.

During the past ten years the increasing dissatisfaction over the small amount of play space provided by the public schools has resulted in a tendency to secure more ample grounds especially when erecting school buildings in new locations. By 1930 at least eight states had passed laws which set up minimum requirements for school playgrounds. State boards of education in twenty states have adopted rules and regulation concerning the size of school sites. The areas required by statute or regulations of state boards vary from one to six acres for elementary schools and from two to ten acre for high schools.11 In the case of many of the more recently built schools located in small cities or in the outlying districts of large cities these minimum standard have been attained, and in an increasing number of cases have been greatly exceeded. The enlargement of the older school grounds, however, is proceeding very slowly.

11 U. S. Office of Education, Marie M. Ready, School Playgrounds, Pamphlet no. 10, 1930, pp. 4-9. See also discussion of this report in Chap. VII.009919

Recognition of the need for indoor recreation space during inclement weather has become general enough during recent years to modify the architecture of school buildings. Either a gymnasium, or an auditorium that can be used as a gymnasium, is now regarded as standard equipment for public schools. Playrooms and, less frequently, swimming pools are also included in modern school plants. Unfortunately, many thousands of old school buildings do not contain adequate facilities for indoor recreation; they were built at a time when the need for recreational equipment was less keenly felt. A survey made during 1926-1927 showed that only 30 per cent of the schools reporting in 410 cities had gymnasiums.12 Forty-eight percent of the schools reported neither gymnasium nor playrooms and presumably had made no provision for indoor games. Swimming pools were provided in one or more of the public schools in 23 percent of the cities studied. While provision for indoor recreation in the public schools is apparently on the increase, it seems to be lagging behind the development of grounds for outdoor games.

12 U.S. Bureau of Education, Marie M. Ready, Physical Education in City Public Schools, Physical Education Series, no. 10, 1929.

State and Federal Provisions for Recreation.—Public interest in state parks and forest began to develop during the opening years of the present century, although it was not until the last decade that rapid expansion resulted. In 1928 state reservations comprised approximately four and one half million acres, more than half of which were located in the state of New York.13 While the majority of the state governments have adopted the policy of setting aside lands for recreational use, the movement has made its greatest advances in the northern and eastern states where the dense population and the lack of national parks make a development of this kind especially appropriate. Many reservations have been equipped with conveniences for campers and tourists and are becoming popular places for week end trips from neighboring cities.

13 Nelson, Beatrice W., State Reservation Parks, Forests, and Game Preserves, National Conference on State Parks, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1928, pp. 430-431. For further discussion of the use of forests for recreation, see Chap. II.

The national park system now comprises 22 parks with a total area of 8,027,216 acres. Since 1920 five of these parks have been acquired and three additional parks have been designated for future development. These parks are unequally distributed through the country, the majority being located in the west. Formerly the parks attracted very few visitors because they were not easily accessible and offered few facilities for tourists. During the past 15 years, however, motor roads have been built, camp sites provided, hotels and lodges constructed, and efforts made to provide recreational facilities. The annual appropriations for the administration and improvement of the national parks have increased during the past ten years from approximately one million to twelve 010920million dollars. For roads and trails within these parks the expenditures since 1925 amount to $22,500,000.14

14 U.S. National Park Service, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1915-1930.Number of visitors (in thousands)YearTo National ParksTo National Forests191019919209204,83319251,76115,28019302,77531,90519313,152

Table 2.—Visitors to National Parks and National Forests, 1910-1931 a

a Compiled from Annual Reports of the National Park Service and Forest Service.

The increasing importance of the parks is shown by the rapid growth in the number of visitors during recent years. In 1910, the visitors numbered 198,606, while in 1930 they reached a total of 2,774,561, an increase of thirteen-fold.15 It is noteworthy that the stream of visitors has steadily increased during the period of financial depression, the rate of increase being slightly greater for 1929-1931 than it was for the two preceding years. The present policy of the National Park Service in developing new parks and in making more adequate provision for the recreational use of those already established is especially appropriate in view of the growing demand for facilities for the enjoyment of outdoor life.

15 Ibid., 1910-1930.

The national forests, which in 1931 had a gross area of 185,251,582 acres, offer many opportunities for hunting, fishing and camping, and have been widely used as summer recreation grounds during recent years. The Forest Service offers the public the use of the forests without charge, the only restrictions being those designed to decrease fire hazards and eliminate water pollution. Nearly 1,750 camp grounds have been set aside and at least partially equipped with facilities essential to public health and convenience. As a result of this liberal policy there has been an enormous increase in th number of visitors each year. In 1917, the first year that a systematic attempt was made to estimate the number of visitors, 3,160,000 people made use of such forests for some form of recreation. Between 1920 and 1930 the number of visitors increased from 4,832,671 to 31,904,452 16 or more than six-fold.

16 U.S. Forest Service, Annual Report of the Chief Forester, 1920-1930.

While the administration of the national forests has been viewed chiefly as a problem of conservation, the recent emphasis upon their recreational use has brought them more prominently to public attention. The present interest in camping and outdoor life has led to the suggestion 011921that their acreage be increased, or at least that greater restrictions be placed upon the sale of timber. As one step toward meeting this situation, the federal Forest Service has recently adopted the policy of setting aside so-called primitive areas in each of the forest regions so that extensive forests of the wilderness type will always be available for those who wish to enjoy camp life under natural conditions. Whether it is possible or desirable to go farther than this in preserving the forests for recreational purposes is difficult to say. A more rapid commercial exploitation of national forest lands is urged by those in a position to profit by such a policy. Perhaps a general plan can be worked out which will permit a legitimate use of the timber without destroying the forests as places of recreation.

II. TRAVEL AND OUTDOOR LIFE

No aspect of modern recreation is more remarkable then the streams of travel which flow from urban centers into the surrounding countryside and more distant regions, carrying with them crowds of week end and seasonal vacationists who seek rest, relaxation and diversion through change of scene, or perhaps find their enjoyment in travel itself. At a time when urbanization has been increasing at an unprecedented rate, the rapid development of automobile transportation has greatly facilitated travel. Tens of thousands spend their leisure in touring, camping, picnicking, hiking, mountain climbing, hunting, fishing, sailing, motor boating, playing on the beaches, plunging into swimming pools and participating in other pastimes of the sea, lake, hill and forest. Since these outdoor recreations are essentially non-competitive and therefore of little news value, reports of such activities are crowded off the sports pages by games in which championships are at stake. For this reason, it is easy to underestimate the scope of such outdoor activity and the important role it plays in the recreational life of the nation.

Automobile Pleasure Travel.—By the year 1915 motor cars had become sufficiently numerous to carry a considerable part of the vacation travelers, but it was not until after the World War that the automobile began really to revolutionize the recreational habits of the people. Through large scale production of moderate priced cars automobiles were brought within the reach of the millions. In 1921 there were more than nine million registered passenger automobiles, taxicabs and buses in the United States. Five years later the figure had doubled, and in 1930 it reached approximately twenty-three million.

The progress in highway construction has been equally remarkable. Between 1914 and 1930 the mileage of rural highways with a high type of surface increased from 14,442 to 125,708.17

17 See Chap. IV for detailed data on highway construction.012922

Automobile touring has assumed enormous proportions during recent years. In 1930, 92 percent of the visitors to the national forests and 85 percent of the visitors to the national parks used automobiles as their means of conveyance. Private automobiles entering the national parks in 1916, the first years records were kept, numbered 14,975. In 1920, the number of cars had increased to 128,074; and in 1931 they reached the total of 897,038.18 The increase in touring can also be noted in the vacation flow of traffic into Canada. United States automobiles crossing the border into Canada, on two to thirty day permits for touring purposes, numbered 128,696 in 1921. Ten years later cars of this description totaled 1,297,030, an increase of slightly less than ten-fold. Assuming that there were on average 3.3 persons per car, more than 4 million people from the United States motored into Canada in 1930, the majority of whom were doubtless pleasure seeking tourists.19 The Research Department of the American Automobile Association estimated that 45,000,000 people took vacation motor tours in this country during 1929.20 In 1930 this vacation travel, according to their estimates, declined between 10 and 15 percent, apparently because of the depression. The speeding up of the automobile and modern surfacing of highways make a 250 mile daily journey as common and as comfortable as was a 100 mile jaunt a decade ago. The typical vacation of thousands of motor enthusiasts is spent on the road, with brief stops at points of special interest, the journey itself being an important part of the vacation.

18 U.S. National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service, Annual Reports.19 Canada, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, The Tourist Trade in Canada, 1930.20 Mimeographed statement issued by the American Automobile Association.

Of even greater significance from the point of view of local recreational programs are short automobile trips within the community or to adjacent places during the daily hours of leisure. At the close of the working day, drives can be made to bathing beaches, outlying parks, golf courses and pleasure resorts that would have been much less accessible in the days before the motor cars were in general use. The automobile has greatly extended the borders of the local recreational community, thereby multiplying opportunities for the daily enjoyment of leisure. At the same time this growing mobility is an important factor in increasing the cost of recreation. Our total bill for pleasure travel already exceeds that of any other type of leisure time activity.

Types of Outdoor Recreation.—The growing interest in the out of doors can be seen in such popular leisure time activities as camping, hunting, fishing, and water sports. The rapid growth of cities has been accompanied by an increasing appreciation of camp life. During the past twenty years there have been established approximately 1,350 commercially operated camps located for the most part in those sections of the 013923country where the scenery and climate offer the best facilities for outdoor life.21 Campus of this kind usually cater to the upper middle and wealthier classes. They are regarded as a highly satisfactory means of providing wholesome recreation for children during the summer vacation.

The organized camp movement has made its greatest advance under the auspices of character building and welfare organizations. During recent years these have regularly featured camping in their programs. According to figures given out by national organizations of this kind, there were, during 1929, 7,368 organized camps which accommodated 1,142,500 persons.22 The recent liberal policy of the state and national governments in providing camp sites and facilities on government reservations has done much to popularize camping. In seventeen of the national parks for which reports of camping are available, the public camps in 1931 were used by approximately 750,000 people, constituting 30 percent of the number of visitors to those parks. Of the visitors to the national forests who remain longer than one day, the campers outnumber those who stay at hotels. During 1930 the National Forest Service reported 1,980,736 campers.23

21 Handbook of Summer Camps, An Annual Survey, Porter Sargent, ed., Boston, 1924-1931.22 Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, vol. III, p. 169, New York, 1930.23 U. S. National Park Service, U. S. Forest Service, Annual Reports.

Still further evidence of the popularity of outdoor recreation is furnished by the army of hunters and fishermen. During the season 1928-1929, 6,428,761 hunting and 5,318,104 fishing licenses were issued by the various state governments.24 Since these figures include approximately 4,500,000 combination hunting and fishing licenses, a fair estimate of the total number of people licensed to engage in one or the other of these sports would be at least seven and a quarter million. This number by no means includes all those who hunt and fish, for children under 15 years of age, war veterans, and people hunting and fishing on their own premises ordinarily are not required to have licenses. Through improved roads and automobiles hunting and fishing grounds are far more accessible than ever before. These sports have already developed to the point where they involve surprisingly large expenditures. The value of sporting firearms manufactured each year is much greater than that of golf goods; more fishing rods and reels than tennis rackets are manufactured. The Special Senate Committee on Conservation of Wild Life Resources estimates that three quarters of a billion dollars are spent each year for sporting arms and ammunition, fishing tackle, canoes, tents, and other equipment used in fishing and hunting, and for transportation24 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook of Agriculture, 1931, p. 1053; U. S. Fisheries Bureau, Propagation and Distribution of Food Fishes, Document no. 1098, 1930, p. 1132.014924to and from fishing and hunting grounds.25 So great is the popular interest that the time is rapidly approaching when these sports can only yield diminishing returns. There is a general agreement among sportsmen and conservationists alike concerning the rapid decrease of wild life, especially in the thickly populated sections of the country. It now seems possible that hunting and fishing may in the near future die out as popular sports for the general public and be available only to those able to hold memberships in exclusive clubs with resources sufficient to purchase fishing rights in lakes and rivers, and to control their own game preserves. Such a decline seems inevitable unless a more effective program of wild life conservation is devised.

25 U. S. Congress, Wild Life Conservation, Senate Report 1329, 71st Cong. 3d. Sess., Series no. 9324, p. 6.

Another evidence of the growing interest in outdoor recreation is the widespread development of facilities for the enjoyment of water sports. There is an increasing recreational use of municipal water fronts which have been traditionally regarded as chiefly valuable for commercial and industrial purposes. Between 1923 and 1930 the number of cities of over 2,500 population reporting public bathing beaches increased from 127 to 218, while the number of beaches during this period grew from 260 to 408. The popularity of the beaches is shown by the fact that 81 of the 218 cities maintaining public beaches in 1930 reported an attendance of 39,473,637, an average of nearly 500,000 per city, which is more than double the average reported in 1927.26 The attendance in Chicago was approximately 7,000,000 during the summer of 1930. Since 1905 the number has increased six-fold, and between 1925 and 1930 the attendance doubled.27

26 Yearbooks of the National Recreation Association.27 Annual reports of South Park, Lincoln Park, and City Beaches, Chicago.

While commercial and private exploitation of water front areas has been a serious factor in limiting the further development of public bathing beaches, the problem of water pollution has been increasingly troublesome to the point, in many cases, of making entirely impracticable the utilization of this recreational resource. The contamination of both coastal and inland waters by the discharge of oil from steamers and by the dumping of untreated sewage is being dealt with by legislation, but as yet the problem has by no means been solved. In the meantime, outdoor swimming pools are rapidly growing in number as substitutes for bathing beaches. In 1930, the number of public swimming pools reported in the yearbook of the National Recreation Association was 985, an increase of 80 percent since 1923. Moreover, it is the outdoor rather than the indoor pool that is now most frequently built. There was no increase in the number of cities reporting public indoor pools between the years 1928 and 1930, while the cities reporting outdoor pools increased during this two 015925year period from 266 to 340. The American Association of Pools and Beaches estimates that there are more than 3,500 public and private swimming pools in the United States.

Another type of recreation is the use of water craft for pleasure purposes. The recent popularity of boating has come about largely through the development of the motor boat, especially small outboard and inboard types, which, like less expensive automobiles, can be owned by persons of moderate means. The number of registered motor boats under 16 gross tons was 248,448 in 1930, at least 75 percent of which were used for pleasure purposes. This number does not, of course, include all the motor boats of small size, since many fail to register in compliance with the law and those under 16 feet in length are not required to register.28 Further evidence of the trend is the fact that documented yachts increased 11.8 percent, and registered motor boats under 16 gross tons about 90 percent between 1920 and 1930.29 This advance in motor boating, however, has not been accompanied by a wider use of older forms of water craft for pleasure purposes. According to the Census of Manufactures, the sailboats, rowboats, and canoes constructed in 1929 were one-third less in number than in 1925, while the motor boats under 5 gross tons increased during this same period more than ten-fold.30 This change in the type of pleasure boat is especially important since it has greatly increased the cost of boating and is another indication of the trend toward forms of recreation that require heavy expenditures.

III. ATHLETIC SPORTS AND GAMES

The first important development of interest in athletic sports and games occurred in this country in the decades immediately following the Civil War. Prior to that time the emphasis had been upon the German and Swedish systems of gymnastics and calisthenics so widely used in Europe as a means for physical health and recreation. In America these formal physical exercises failed to take root. The American youth has insisted that his physical training come from sports and games. His urge to battle for some common cause, his desire to act upon his own initiative rather than upon formal commands, find a natural outlet in competitive games. The typical American is not interested in play for the sake of play alone; there must be some ulterior motive in the game, usually victory for himself, for some organization, or for some institution.

In the seventies and eighties of the last century this interest in competitive sports had developed sufficiently to attract public attention. Inter-collegiate athletics and professional baseball gained their first real momentum 016926during this period and prove to be the forerunners of the athletic sports now enjoying general popularity.

The past fifteen years appear to mark the beginning of a second expansion of interest in outdoor games and athletic contests. Whereas the earlier period may be characterized as an era when athletics were brought within reach of the few, this second period stands out because of its emphasis upon athletics for the many. The development of a compelling interest in adult recreation is apparently one of the by-products of the World War. For the first time in our history there is an insistent demand that ample facilities for sports and games be provided for all of the people. Athletic fields, golf courses and tennis courts have increased more rapidly during the past decade than have children's playgrounds. Governmental as well as private resources have been called upon in the effort to provide the space and equipment needed for the variety of sports and games now occupying such an important place in leisure time activities.

Trend Toward Active Participation in Games and Sports.—Before the World War golf had made little headway outside of the larger cities and was played chiefly by those able to hold membership in country clubs. Between 1916 and 1923 golf courses in the United State grew from 743 to 1,903, an increase of 156.5 percent. This extraordinary increase of golf courses was not merely maintained, but was surpassed during the succeeding seven year period, for in 1930 they numbered 5,856, a gain of 207.7 percent.31

31 The Golf Market, published by Golfdom, Chicago, 1929 and 1930 editions.

While the great majority of these golf courses are private, a rapidly growing number are municipally owned and open to the general public. In 1910, 24 public golf courses were in operation, almost all of which were located in large cities in the northern and eastern sections of the country. Between 1910 and 1920 such courses slightly more than trebled and in 1931, according to figures issued by Golfdom, there were 543 courses maintained by municipalities in 46 states.32 In spite of this great increase, municipal golf courses have not been built in sufficient numbers to meet the popular demand. During the summer months the public courses ordinarily have continual streams of players from dawn to dusk, and in some places reservations must be made a week in advance. The failure of municipal golf courses to keep pace with the growing number of golf enthusiasts has given rise to the daily fee course operated on a commercial basis. There were approximately 700 of these pay as you play courses32 The Golf Market, op. cit. 1931-1932 edition. Municipal Golf Courses in the United States, issued by the Public Links Section of the United States Golf Association, contains a descriptive list of 291 municipal courses operating in 1930, but it is stated that the list is not complete.017927in 1931, practically all of which were constructed during the preceding ten years.33

33 The Golf Market, op. cit., 1931-1932 edition.

Attracting vast throngs, gold has developed into a great business enterprise involving many millions of dollars for its annual maintenance. According to the Census of Manufactures, the value of golf equipment manufactured in 1929 amounted to $21,067, or 37.4 percent of the total value of sporting and athletic goods manufactured in that year. The more than 5,000 golf courses require between 400,000 and 500,000 acres of land, the greater portion of which is located either within or adjacent to cities where land values are high. The value of golf courses in the United States is estimated to be $850,000,000.24 About 90 percent of the golf courses belong to private clubs, many of which maintain expensive club houses and charge high fees. The cost of golf to the million or more members of these clubs mounts to a stupendous figure.

34 The Golf Market, op. cit., 1930 edition.

A striking feature of the expansion of golf is the rapidity with which the game has swept over the country. As recently as 1916 there were 4 states with no golf courses, 16 states with less than five each, 28 states each of which had fewer than 10 courses, and only one state with as many as 100. In 1930, there was only one state with less than 10 courses, and there were 18 states with from 100 to 400 courses.35 Playing facilities are now sufficiently widespread to be accessible to millions of people, and many new courses are being constructed every year.

35 The Golf Market, op. cit., 1929 and 1930 editions.

It is significant that golf makes such heavy demands upon space that conveniently located golf courses cannot be provided in sufficient numbers without prohibitive expense. Moreover, golf, as it has been developed, is an expensive game requiring a large outlay of capital for playing facilities, as well as a considerable expenditure of both time and money on the part of individual players. Its period of most rapid growth coincided with the rise of a business cycle when plenty of money was available for recreational pursuits. In many quarters it has already been found necessary to curtail some of the extravagant expenditures during the financial depression. The expansion of the game may be less rapid in the immediate future, and it is likely that golf will tend to remain a sport to be enjoyed by a limited number of people.

The trend toward greater participation in outdoor sports can also be seen in the growing popularity of tennis. Clubs affiliated with the United States Lawn Tennis Association increased from 294 in 1920 to approximately 800 in 1930. The total membership of these clubs is between 50,000 and 60,000 players who have available for their use about 0189285,500 tennis courts.36 This by no means covers the privately maintained tennis facilities, for there are many country clubs, chiefly interested in golf, that provide one or more tennis courts for their members. It is estimated that more than one-third of the golf clubs have built tennis courts to a total of at least 6,000.37

36 From data supplied by the United States Lawn Tennis Association and its sectional associations.37 The Golf Market, op. cit., 1930 edition.

Tennis playing facilities have been still further expanded during recent years through the inclusion of tennis among the games sponsored by municipal recreation systems. As early as 1905 the South Park system in Chicago had 100 tennis courts. Ten years later the number had more than trebled, and in 1930 Chicago had approximately 750 public tennis courts. The number of public tennis courts in the various cities of the United States in 1930, reported in the Yearbook of the National Recreation Association, was 8,167. The widespread use of these courts is shown by the fact that there were in 1930, according to an estimate of the Public Parks Committee of the United States Lawn Tennis Association, more than 1,200,000 public park tennis players in this country.

Through this remarkable growth of public tennis courts the game has become national in scope and is played by all classes of people. Public tennis courts are now as crowded as public golf courses, the number of players increasing as rapidly as playing facilities multiply. Recent important trends are the lengthening of the playing season through the construction of all weather courts, and the use of night illumination which greatly extends the hours of play. Since tennis is economical in the use of space, and is a game that can be enjoyed by persons of varying degrees of skill, it is well adapted to urban recreation and will probably expand until it outranks other athletic sports in the number of players it accommodates. The present popularity of tennis and golf seems to give some indication of a trend away from bodily contact games toward those sports which allow an equal and companionable participation of the sexes.

In most parts of this country participation in sports has been largely limited to the summer season. Efforts have recently been made to develop winter sports and thereby extend the playing season throughout the year. By flooding suitably located areas, skating and hockey rinks are available for use in many sections when temperatures are too mild for safe skating on lakes and rivers. This not only extends the skating season but it also makes skating possible in communities where there are no natural bodies of water and removes the element of danger. In a similar manner snow sports have been given a wide vogue through the construction of toboggan chutes and slides, the temporary closing of traffic of 019929streets suitable for coasting, and the building of trestles for ski jumping in localities where natural inclines are not available. The more progressive recreation departments, in cities located in the snow belt, organize a program of winter sports with meets and tournaments that attract thousands of participants. National parks located on the Pacific coast, notably Mt. Rainier and Yosemite, now remain open the year round and are visited during the winter months by large numbers of people eager to enjoy skiing, tobogganing, and similar sports. There was very little demand for such facilities twenty years ago; and the progress made in providing them is largely an accomplishment of the past decade.

Athletic Sports as Public Spectacles.—Evidence of the popularity of games, played by both professional and amateur teams, can be found in the increasing size of grand stands and stadia, the large amount of space given to sports by newspapers, and the broadcasting of games play by play over nationwide networks of radio stations. Every city has its athletes whose prowess is a matter of local pride and concern. Following the fortunes of favorite teams and players is an important leisure time pursuit for large numbers of people.

Among athletic sports which are popular public spectacles, college football has outstanding public support.38 The whole nation demands information concerning victories and defeats of better known teams, and the accomplishments of the more successful players also receive wide publicity. During the past few years, in spite of record breaking crowds at some of the games, considerable discussion has arisen concerning the future of college football and its possible decline in public favor. Critics are pointing to the fact that students in general seem less excited than formerly over the outcome of games, and that the public quickly loses interest in teams which fall below championship caliber.

38 On athletics and education, see Chap. VII.

In order to get facts that would throw light on this situation, an effort was made to secure records of football attendance and receipts for the past ten years from the leading colleges and universities.39 There was a commendable willingness to cooperate in this study but unfortunately few institutions have satisfactory records on football attendance over a period of years. The 49 institutions replying reported that attendance more than doubled between 1921 and 1930, the increase being 119 percent. Football receipts, as reported by 65 institutions, grew from $2,696,345 to $8,363,674, a gain of 20 percent. Both attendance and receipts increased with considerable regularity during the first nine years of this period, with a sharp falling off in 1930, the decline over the preceding year amounting to 6 percent in the case of admissions and 9 percent in39 This investigation was made in 1931 as a part of this study of recreational trends, and included the colleges and universities that have membership in the National Collegiate Athletic Association.020930receipts. While only a small number of institutions supplied information on this phase of the study, the reliability of the results is strengthened by the fact that they included a large number of the leading universities long prominent in football history. Moreover, reports for a five year period, from 1926 to 1930, which were received from 88 institutions in the matter of attendance and from 102 institutions covering receipts, corroborate in a striking manner the results secured from the reports covering the ten year period. Available evidence, therefore, seems to indicate that college football is not on the wane unless the decline in attendance and receipts in 1930 represents a turning of the tide. The total attendance at all football games in 1930, estimated from reports received from 109 institutions, was approximately 10,300,000. The

YearAttendance (in thousands)Index of attendance (1921 = 100)Receipts (in thousands)Index of receipts (1921 = 100)19211,504100$2,69610019221,8471283,76013919232,0831393,92614619242,4501635,01318619252,5451695,44620219262,658177$6,30523419273,0532037,46727719283,3172218,17630319293,6172419,03233519303,2892198,364310

Table 3.—College Football Attendance as Reported by 49 Institutions, andReceipts as Reported by 65 Institutions, 1921-1930a

a For source see text and footnote. 39.

total receipts, computed in a similar way from data furnished by 129 institutions, could not have been less than $21,500,000. The average gross receipts per school in 1930 ranged from $5,565 for colleges of less than 500 students to $245,417 for universities of the largest size. Of the 129 institutions reporting receipts for 1930, 8 reported gross receipts in excess of $500,000 each and 33 reported receipts of more than $100,000. Since neither the curve of attendance nor the curve of receipts showed any tendency to flatten out previous to 1930, there is reason to assume that hard times rather than declining interest is responsible for the decreased size of the football crowds.

The spectacular increase in attendance at football games during the past decade has been accompanied by a wave of grand stand and stadium building far surpassing any previous development of this kind. According to reports from 135 institutions, the seating facilities for football spectators increased from 929,523 in 1920 to 2,307,850 in 1930, a gain of 148 percent. These institutions reported 74 concrete stadia, 55 of which had been built since 1920. Only one these college stadia in 1920 021931had a seating capacity of more than 70,000, while there were seven in this class in 1930.

In so far as present evidence indicates, therefore, football can hardly be regarded as a passing fad which will soon give way to something else. The huge investments in stadia, which must be paid off in future years, make almost inevitable the continued approval of the game by college administrative authorities. Its capacity to produce gate receipts and its value as an advertising medium are assets that cannot be ignored. Moreover, the game itself has those combat elements which make it a thrilling spectacle, entirely apart from the colorful features provided by rival student bodies. Evidence of this can be seen in the growing popularity of professional football in the east and middle west during the past few years. It is possible that public interest may eventually shift from college to professional football teams because of the superior skill of the latter. If this should happen, college football may follow college baseball and decline as a public spectacle, becoming a game of no more than local interest.

That grave ills have resulted from the stress and struggle to win football championships there can be no doubt. A few of the leading colleges and universities have already attempted to reorganize their athletics more in accord with general student welfare and educational ideals. What may ultimately develop from the long and insistent agitation against the alleged over emphasis on college football cannot accurately be predicted at this time.

Professional baseball, which has for many years provided public spectacles of great interest to thousands of people, is already showing the effect of growing competition with other sports and amusements. More than ten million people attended the games of the two major leagues during the season of 1930, approximately a million more than in 1920, but this increase has not kept pace with the growth of population in the 11 cities in which these leagues operate. While the population increased 20.5 percent in these cities between 1920 and 1939, the attendance at games made a gain of only 11.5 percent. The curve of attendance is still mounting upward but has made no spectacular rise within recent years, as has been the case with college football. The minor league of professional baseball, operating in cities of smaller size in all sections of the country, are facing a much more serious situation as far as public support is concerned. The three leagues belonging to Class AA, the highest ranking division among the minors, have had a marked decline since 1928, and the attendance in 1930 was considerably less than in 1923. Four of the smaller leagues suspended operations during 1930; three others experienced a 21 percent decline in attendance between 1927 and 1930.40

40 Data on professional baseball was supplied by the two major leagues, the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, and by individual minor leagues.022932

While the throngs attending athletic games and sports leave an impression of a widespread mania to be amused by others, it is in fact becoming difficult to maintain public interest in games where championships are not at stake or where widely known and popular players do not participate. In professional baseball circles it is now recognized that a profitable season depends upon a close race between contesting teams with the final issue always in doubt. The major league ball parks are crowded to full capacity during the world series, but the teams that fall behind during the playing season attract relatively few spectators. Similarly the curve of football attendance at any university rises and falls each year, depending upon the caliber of the team and its chance of winning a championship. Again, professional boxing apparently reached its peak in 1926 and 1927; a sharp decline followed the passing of Dempsey and Tunney.

YearMajor leaguesClass AA minor leaguesAttendance (in thousands)Index of attendance (1923 = 100)Attendance (in thousands)Index of attendance (1923 = 100)19209,134105.019218,62099.119228,824101.419238,703100.04,782100.019249,605110.45,304110.919259,547109.74,809100.619269,838113.05,123107.119279,938114.25,125107.219289,121104.85,353111.919299,592110.24,937103.2193010,186117.04,61696.5

Table 4.—Attendance at the Baseball Games of the Two Major Leagues andof the Class AA Minor Leagues, 1920-1930a

a Compiled from information supplied by the president of the American League, the National League, the American Association, the International League and the Pacific Coast League.

When due consideration is given to the available evidence, there is no reason to believe that Americans are becoming a nation of spectators who prepare to watch rather than to play games. On the contrary, interest in sports as public spectacles has already been equalled, if not surpassed, by the demand for more adequate playing facilities and their extensive use by the public. Moreover, in the rise of American athletic sports, the roles of participant and observer have been combined to their mutual advantage. Attendance at professional games and contests has stimulated interest in athletics and aided in developing a public opinion strong enough to secure municipal appropriations for athletic fields, playgrounds 023933and golf courses. The profits from college football are often the funds which make possible comprehensive programs of intramural athletics for the student bodies. The extensive construction of grand stands and stadia has greatly multiplied the enjoyment of sports by both participants and spectators, and provided entertainment for the thousands who for various reasons cannot actively participate in sports and games.

IV. CLUBS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The emphasis upon organization in the field of recreation must not be thought of as a development peculiarly characteristic of recent years. Community studies offer adequate evidence of the important role of associations and clubs in the recreational life of people fifty or more years ago. Many of the social organizations that now have a wide constituency were well under way long before the opening of the present century. Social, athletic, musical and dramatic clubs have had a long history as well as an extraordinary growth. There can be no doubt of the present trend toward organized forms of recreation, but this movement has its roots deep in the past. The multiplying of organizations of this nature has paralleled increasing population and apparently has no more than kept pace with expansion in other fields of human activity.

Organizations in the Field of Sports and Games.—Many kinds of clubs and associations have been organized for the express purposes of bringing together those who desire to participate in some particular sport and providing the necessary playing facilities. Examples of these are country clubs, golf clubs, fishing clubs, hunting clubs, and a host of others. Comprehensive data relating to the growth of such clubs cannot be obtained. Some measure of their rapid expansion, however, can be secured by a study of the taxes paid by these organizations to the federal government. In 1921 when a federal tax of ten percent on all

Table 5.—Receipts From Taxes on the Dues of Social and Athletic Clubs, 1921-1930a

Year

Tax receipts (in thousands)

1921$6,160

19226,615

19237,171

19248,010

19258,691

1926$10,074

192710,436

192810,353

192911,245

193012,521

a Compiled from the annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. A 10 percent tax was levied on annual dues in excess of $10.00 from 1921 to 1928 and on annual dues in excess of $25.00 in 1929 and 1930.

dues of more than ten dollars a year was assessed the amount received from this source was $6,159,817. Ten years later, when federal taxes 024934were paid only by clubs having annual dues of more than $25, thus exempting many clubs that had previously been taxed, the total tax receipts amounted to $12,521,091, an increase of more than 100 percent.41 Even when ample allowance is made for increases in annual dues, it is apparent from these figures that associations of this type, in which country and golf clubs bulk large, have at least doubled their income, if not their members, during this period.

41 U.S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1921-1931.

Closely allied with these local recreational clubs are the various national organizations established to standardize rules and regulations, control conditions of competitive play, and conduct or authorize sectional and national tournaments and athletic meets. Among the many important associations of this sort are the United States Golf Association, United States Lawn Tennis Association, Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, National Amateur Athletic Federation, American Olympic Association, Amateur Fencers’ League of America, National Association of Amateur Oarsmen, Amateur Billiard Association of America, American Skating Union of the United States, American Canoe Association, American Snow Shoe Union, National Association of Scientific Angling Clubs, National Cycling Association, National Horse Shoe Pitchers’ Association, National Ski Association, National Amateur Casting Association, National Collegiate Athletic Association, and United States Football Association. A sport or game of any importance must have not only its local clubs but its sectional and national associations to guide its development and safeguard its interests. Without such organization, a modern sport could not maintain its status; it would lack the machinery for orderly competition between different groups. While such national organizations are by no means a new device, the present widespread development, which gives them almost complete control over games and sports of every description, is unprecedented.

Besides these more formal organizations there are many informal social clubs such as bridge and dancing clubs, which occupy an important place in the leisure time activities of every community. While facts are not available concerning the growth of clubs of this kind, the recent

YearNumber of packs (in thousands)Index of number of packs (1900 = 100)190016,551100191028,276169192038,606231193048,193289

Table 6.—Playing Cards on Which Federal Tax Was Paid, 1900-1930a

a Compiled from the annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.025935

increases in the manufacture of playing cards gives some indication of the widespread activities of bridge and other card clubs. Federal tax was paid in 1931 upon 49,329,062 packs of playing cards. The production of playing cards increased nearly three times during the past thirty years and has made a gain of 27 percent since 1920.42 The removal of the taboo against dancing in most social circles undoubtedly stimulated the establishment of many clubs interested in this form of recreation. Informal groups banded together for the enjoyment of social life now form a recreational pattern reaching out in all directions and including a growing number of people.

42 U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1900-1930.

Organizations as Leisure Time Devices.—In addition to the clubs and associations established exclusively for recreational purposes, there are other organizations whose activities occupy the leisure time of their members but concern themselves with the attainment of weightier objectives than the promotion of sports and games. These include city clubs, parent teacher associations, federations of women's clubs, various types of improvement associations, fraternal societies, and luncheon clubs. Organizations of this type usually come into existence to meet specific needs and then pass through a life cycle of varying length determined by their flexibility in the adjustment of their programs to changing conditions. Through an examination of the development of fraternal societies and luncheon clubs, which represent old and new types of leisure time associations, it is possible to gain some understanding of the changing role and present status of organizations of this kind.

The fraternal society movement, as far as organization of new societies is concerned, is primarily a product of the 19th century. The establishment of fraternal insurance societies reached its peak between 1890 and

YearMasonsbOther non-insurance societiescInsurance societiesd19059893,6965,11119101,3104,8237,03719151,6715,4688,43719202,0576,6409,95119253,1747,46310,76619293,4846,39010,89619303,5056,96610,124

Table 7.—Membership of Fraternal Societies by Five Year Periods, 1905-1930a[In thousands]

a Compiled from Statistic, Fraternal Societies, Rochester, New York, 1905-1931.b Includes membership in the United States Canada.c Data for the entire period were available only for the following societies: Independent Order of Odd Fellows, Independent Order of th Rechabites, Benevolent and Protective Order Of Elks, Knights of Pythias, Independent Order of Good Templars, Fraternal Order of Eagles, Improved Order of Red Men, Foresters of America, and Junior Order United American Mechanics.d Includes all such societies reporting in the years indicated.026936

1900. Three-fourths of the societies of this type had their origin prior to 1900, and but four were organized during the past decade. The lodges of these insurance societies reached their greatest number in 1925 and have since shown a marked decline. Their membership, however, indicated an increase through the year 1929 and then fell off slightly more than three quarters of a million during the next year. Membership in the various Masonic orders increased fairly rapidly through the early years of the present century, with a slump in the rate of increase for the past decade. A study of the membership of 9 other leading fraternal organizations not primarily insurance societies shows that their membership doubled between 1905 and 1925 but declined during the next five year period. In 1930 their membership increased 9 percent but was still 500,000 less than in 1925.43 On the basis of this evidence it seems fair to conclude that fraternal societies, which have an estimated membership of 35,000,000, are reaching the peak of their development and are now facing a decline as leisure time institutions. Their rites and ceremonies have lost much of their former appeal. There is widespread complaint that their meetings ar no longer well attended. Business and professional men are tending to transfer their elsewhere. Members from the working classes, who still cling to the lodge, are likely to do so largely because of its insurance features.

43 Statistics, Fraternal, Rochester, New York, 1905-1931; Grand Lodge of Iowa, A.F. and A.M., Annals, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 1845-1931

The luncheon club movement got under way in 1910, with the organization of sixteen Rotary clubs into a federation called Rotary International. Interest in luncheon clubs developed slowly. It was not until 1916 that a second federation, the Kiwanis International, was established. During 1917 the luncheon club movement began to expand more rapidly with the organization of the Lions International, Civitan International, and the International Association of Gyro Clubs. At the present time there are about twenty-five of these luncheon club federations. the majority of which were established between 1917 and 1922. The extra-ordinary growth of this new movement, judged by the increase in the number of member clubs of the various federations, has occurred during the past decade. Between 1920 and 1929 the local Rotary clubs quadrupled, the Kiwanis clubs increased seven-fold, and the Lions clubs sixteen-fold. These three federations had in 1929 a total of 6,839 clubs, almost half of which belonged to Rotary. The total membership of the luncheon clubs is approximately 500,000, two-thirds of which is in three federations, Rotary, Kiwanis and Lions.44 Membership on the whole has tended recently to increase much less rapidly that th organization of new local clubs, because of rapid expansion of the movement into the

44 Based on data supplied by the national headquarters of these clubs.027937RotaryKiwanisLionsYearClubsMembershipClubsMembershipClubsMembership191731132,000525,90025800191953045,00018815,500422,864192197570,00053847,97024513,73919231,49889,7001,04378,96164032,47719252,096108,0001,38294,42293943,64719272,627129,0001,638100,8491,18352,96519293,178144,0001,812103,3081,84969,778

Table 8.—Growth of Clubs and Membership of Rotary International, KiwanisInternational and Lions International, 1917-1929a

a Compiled from data furnished by the national headquarters of these clubs.

smaller urban communities where the club membership must necessarily be small.

The luncheon club movement appears to be still on the upward trend but the slightly smaller membership increases, during recent years, lead one to the belief that it is approaching its zenith. Further rapid gains in membership, especially of the older organizations, seem improbable when we consider that the membership is highly selective and that the most available field is already well covered. It is significant that luncheon clubs, now one of the major leisure time interests of the more successful business and professional groups, have not spread to other classes of the population. Perhaps clubs of this nature are an appropriate form of recreation only for executives and other leaders who are not compelled to punch the clock at the noon hour. However this may be, the popularity of these clubs among the groups to which they cater cannot be doubted. Lodges, city clubs and other civic organizations, and even churches have suffered from their competition. Luncheon clubs have proved to be more than a passing fad and have developed into a type of leisure time organization apparently adapted to existing urban conditions.

Organizations to Promote Recreation.—Still another type of leisure time organization is that which is concerned with the development of wholesome recreation either as its major activity or as part of a broader program. Among the organizations that fall into this class are the youth service associations which have been established for the purpose of promoting the moral and social welfare of youth through a program that is largely recreational in nature.45 Of the fifteen important national organizations of this type, nearly all of those interested chiefly in young people had their origin between 1851 and 1882, while those concerned45 For additional materials on child recreation, see Chap. XV.028938with boys and girls were a product of the first two decades of the present century. In general, the older organizations showed rapid gains in membership between 1900 and 1910 and since then have gone forward at a much slower rate. On the other hand, the more recently established boys’ and girls’ associations have on the whole been extraordinarily successful during the past decade.46 From the point of view of their recreational function, the conclusion seems warranted that while organizations of this class have expanded sufficiently to constitute an important recreational resource, and are still liberally supported by private philanthropy, they occupy at the present time a less important position in the field of recreation than was the case before the recent widespread advance in both public and private recreational facilities.

46 A more detailed discussion of these Youth Service Associations is given in Chap. XX.

In the development of local recreational programs, the attempts to organize some kind of neighborhood or community center have been very significant. Emphasis upon this form of organization began with the social settlements, which were the most effective leaders in the early recreation movement. While the social settlements have shown no tendency to increase in numbers during the past decade, they still exert a wide influence and have set up a pattern for recreational activities which is now generally followed. Of great significance also, is the school community center movement which has endeavored to make the school plant a community club house after school hours. A survey of school centers in 1924 showed that there were at that time 1,569 centers located in 722 cities, villages and the open country. Between 1919 and 1924 the number of cities over 5,000 population having school centers increased from 107 to 240, a gain of 124 percent.47 In spite of this progress, school centers in 1924, after seventeen years of promotion, were being maintained in only 13 percent of the cities over 5,000 and in only 4 percent of all incorporated places. Since modern school plants are being more adequate equipped with facilities for games, athletic contests, dancing and social gatherings, their use by members of the community after school hours seems likely to become more widespread and may be regarded eventually as a vital part of the general recreational program.

47 Glueck, E. T., The Community Use of Schools, Baltimore, 1927.

In addition to the school other centers of community life are steadily developing. The community churches have made considerable progress in this field. Community houses under various auspices, frequently as war memorials, have been constructed. Field houses in public parks have also been used for this purpose. The present trend seems to be away from the single, inclusive type of center formerly advocated, and toward the operation of a variety of centers under different auspices and offering different kinds of recreational programs.

029939

The important place of organization in the promotion of recreation can also be seen in the activities of the National Recreation Association, which was established in 1906 as the Playground Association of America. Its emphasis has been primarily upon the development of facilities for public recreation under governmental auspices. Through its publications, field studies, annual conferences, activities of field workers and training of recreation leaders, it has become the guiding force in the public recreation movement and is largely responsible for the rapid progress made in this direction.

Finally, the increasing popularity of recreation has made it necessary for all sorts of organizations and institutions to give greater prominence to recreational features. This is seen in the modern recreational programs of churches, the community center movement in public schools, and the community houses maintained by many industrial establishments. This tendency is equally apparent in the programs of civic organizations, trade unions, business associations, and other groups organized for serious purposes. The need for relaxation is perhaps no more keenly felt than in the past, but the giving of some time and attention to entertainment and diversion is now accepted as a matter of course. Probably the best example of this trend is the district, state, national, and even international conventions of various kinds where the amusement and recreational features are no longer regarded as side issues, but are the chief attraction to the majority of the delegates.

V. COMMERCIAL AMUSEMENTS

The widespread demand for enjoyable ways of spending leisure time rendered inevitable the extraordinary expansion of business engaged in providing recreation for financial profit. Even in those phases of recreation for which the government has accepted responsibility and for which voluntary organizations and clubs have been most successfully developed, there is a tendency toward commercial exploitation whenever there is assurance that it will bring acceptable financial returns. Daily fee golf courses, tennis courts, swimming pools and summer camps are frequently operated for financial gain. The professionalization of baseball, football and other athletic games and sports are additional examples of the commercialization of the public demand for recreation.

It is, however, in the provision of those types of diversion and entertainment commonly included under the term commercial amusements, that business enterprise has established itself most securely. Vaudeville and burlesque shows, cabarets and night clubs, dance halls, pool and billiard rooms and amusement parks are some of the more important of the older forms of amusement long under the control of commercial interests. More recently, the movie theaters and the radio, both products 030940of the present century and the latter a development of the past ten years, have forged to the front as popular forms of commercialized entertainment.

The amusements provided on a commercial basis are usually cheap, conveniently located and available at all times of the year. They therefore supplement in an effective manner other forms of leisure time activities many of which are dependent upon the seasons and are either too expensive or inaccessible to be within the reach of the rank and file of the people. In spite of all the recent progress in both public and private recreation, many people are so situated that they are largely dependent for their diversion upon some form of commercial amusement. For this reason the commercial exploitation of the popular demand for pleasure still continues to be sufficiently profitable to encourage further expansion of business interests engaged in this field. Nevertheless, the role of commercial amusement is perhaps less important today than in the recent past. The increasing number of municipal parks, playgrounds, athletic fields, golf courses and tennis courts, and the efforts of the more progressive school systems to provide not merely facilities for active forms of recreation but also leadership and training in the wise use of leisure are making it more and more difficult if not impossible for commercial interests completely to dominate the field of recreation.

Motion Pictures.48—Among the new forms of commercial amusements developed during the present century, the motion picture easily stands first in its wide appeal to the masses and in the vast amount of money involved in its exploitation. Beginning with the “nickelodeons” about 1905 or earlier, motion pictures gained popularity almost immediately. From humble beginnings in both the production and exhibition aspects, the motion picture industry grew with extraordinary rapidity. In January 1931 there were 22,731 motion picture theaters in this country with a seating capacity of approximately 11,300,000. The total investment in the motion picture industry is estimated to be two billion dollars, and it furnishes employment to 325,000 people. The total weekly attendance at motion picture theaters in 1930 probably exceeded 100 million and may have reached 115 million, and the amount spent for admissions that year was more than one and a half billion dollars.49

48 For additional material, see Chap. IV.49 Estimates made by the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America.

While the rate of motion picture growth has been phenomenal during its entire history, its development during recent years is especially noteworthy. Since 1926 both the attendance at motion picture theaters and the capital invested in the industry have doubled. This rapid advance, which was 75 percent greater than during the five year period immediately preceding 1926, is believed to be due to the installation of sound 031941and talking equipment. According to figures given out by the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America at the end of 1931, the theaters wired for sound pictures numbered 14,805, almost three-fourths of the total number operating at that time.

The popularity of the motion picture is shown by the fact that it has continued to attract large crowds in spite of the financial depression. It is apparently a necessary luxury, slow to feel cuts in the family budget. The important role it plays in the leisure time of the masses can hardly be exaggerated. Moderate in cost and almost universal in its appeal, it provides an easily accessible form of recreation especially adapted for a temporary escape from the routine of daily life.

Radio Broadcasting.—The use of the radio for popular entertainment had its beginning in 1920 when the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company of Pittsburgh began the transmission of programs on regular schedules. Other stations were soon established, and by 1930 their number had grown to a total of over 600 in the United States.50 In 1921, according to the Census of Manufactures, the value of radio apparatus, including tubes manufactured that year, amounted to $10,647,617. Four years later the value at the factory of such goods had increased to $150,046,130. Between 1925 and 1929 the value more than doubled, the amount for the latter year being $411,637,412.

50 For detailed data concerning growth of broadcasting stations, see Chap. IV. On the influence of the radio, see Chap. III.

This enormous expansion of the radio industry was made possible by a stream of improvements in broadcasting which extended the scope of radio programs and added to the attractiveness of this form of entertainment. By means of telephone lines, radio contracts have been established with such places as concert halls and athletic fields, thus making it possible to transmit programs publicly given and play by play descriptions of games by announcers on the field. By a more elaborate use of this same method, nationwide broadcasting chains are now able to send out programs from a common center with practically no limitations of distance. In 1931, one hundred and fifty stations, located in large cities in all sections of the country, utilized programs sponsored by the National Broadcasting Company and the Columbia Broadcasting System. Under the auspices of these national chains, grand opera stars now sing to widely scattered audiences and the best symphony orchestras are heard in the most remote and isolated localities.52 Broadcasts of national scope are established features which appear at scheduled times and have a public following comparable to, and in some cases greater than, successful comic strips syndicated in the daily press. Popular dance orchestras no longer furnish entertainment to their immediate patrons alone; their51 For the effect of the radio on music, see Chap. XIX.032942reputations are national; their music is relayed to the most distant places. Through the aid of the radio the entire nation may participate in great public occasions, such as the inaugural exercises of the President; the people throughout the entire country may hear the roar of the crowd and share in the thrill of great sporting events, following the action through the eyes and voices of trained observers.

Since American radio broadcasting is not a governmental monopoly, but is controlled by commercial interests financed largely through revenues from advertisers, emphasis is placed upon programs with a wide popular appeal. This tendency is accentuated by the competition between rival radio stations, each seeking the largest possible audience in order to strengthen its position as an advertising medium. While such operation of the radio as a commercial amusement may at times adversely affect the quality of its entertainment, there can be no doubt of its rapidly growing popularity. According to the returns of the 1930 federal census, the number of families having radio sets was 12,078,345 or 40 percent of all families in this country. In some states more than half of the families have radios, and in some cities between two-thirds and three-fourths of all homes are so equipped. Within a space of ten years the radio has become a widely used of home recreation and apparently is securely entrenched in popular favor.

Other Forms of Commercial Amusements.—Cabarets and road-houses, now prominent in the night life of large cities, do not appear to be on the increase when judged by taxes paid to the federal government. During the past decade this class of amusements, listed by the Internal Revenue Office as roof gardens, cabarets, etc., paid its highest taxes in 1921 and its lowest in 1922. Through the remaining years of this decade, the taxes varied between these two extremes without showing any definite trends. The total expenditures for such amusements in 1930, computed from the tax returns, amounted to approximately $23,725,000, which was $2,640,000 less than was spent in 1921.52 In so fa as it is possible to judge from these data, this type of entertainment has not expanded to the same extent as other amusements, and it still seems to gain its support from a rather limited class of patrons. The most notable change is the tendency for cabarets located in the bright light sections of cities to be supplanted by road houses scattered in outlying regions where there is a minimum of supervision, and where patrons are able to set their own standards of conduct with little danger of interference.

52 U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1920-1930.

Commercial dance halls, which have for many years occupied a prominent place in the fields of urban amusements, have recently shown a tendency to decrease in number and increase in size. The small and poorly equipped hall is being replaced by the elaborately furnished ballroom,

033943

Table 9.—Receipts from Taxes on the Amounts Charged by Roof Gardens, Cabarets, Etc., 1921-1930a

Year

Tax receipts (in thousands)

1921$791

1922600

1923660

1924701

1925634

1926$704

1927716

1928715

1929664

1930712

a Compiled from the annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. The accuracy of these totals may be questioned because of the probability of tax evasion. Presumably, however, the ratio would not be affected, since the proportion of evasion would remain fairly constant through the period.

accommodating several thousand dancers, and provided with a popular orchestra which frequently broadcasts its music while the dance is in progress. This is not true, however, of the closed or taxi-dance hall, which caters to men patrons and is still frequently located in cheap quarters in the less desirable districts of large cities. Considerable progress has been made during the past 15 years in providing better regulation and supervision of this commercial amusement.53 While the problem of control has by no means been solved, the commercial dance hall has certainly been freed from many of the undesirable features formerly closely associated with it. Perhaps the most significant of recent changes is the wider provision for dancing under public and private rather than commercial auspices. Community centers, field houses in public parks, hotels and restaurants, country clubs and other private clubs and homes equipped with the radio allow innumerable opportunities for social dancing. Commercial dance halls are still widely patronized but they occupy a less significant place in the recreation field than they did fifteen years ago. They face strong competition not only from other facilities for dancing but from sports and amusements that are now more accessible to young people than ever before.

53 U.S. Children's Bureau, Ella Gardner, Public Dance Halls, Bulletin no. 189. 1929.

As a final illustration of recent trends in the field of commercial amusements, the changing status of pool and billiard rooms and bowling alleys operated for financial profit is interesting. On the basis of taxes paid to the federal government, the number of tables and alleys in 1915 was 158,282. Five years later this number increased to 278,215. Beginning with 1921 a decline in these games set in, and in 1926, the last year that they were subject to federal taxes, they numbered only 171,465, a decrease of 62 percent since 1920.54 In Chicago, between 1920 and 1930, the number of pool halls fell off two-thirds while the number of tables declined 40 percent. The number of bowling alleys in this city, however, more than54 U.S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1915-1926.034944doubled during the same period. The unsavory reputation of many commercial pool rooms, caused by their association with the gambling interests, is doubtless one of the factors responsible for their retarded growth. At the present time there seems to be an increasing trend away from the small, ill kept hall with one or two tables to large centrally located halls equipped and supervised in a manner designed to appeal to a better clientele. Some of the largest and some generally patronized pool and billiard rooms exclude betting and all gaming devices.

Bowling has made more progress than pool in breaking away from earlier associations which brought it into ill repute and it now enjoys a much higher status than formerly. Bowling teams, representing business concerns and industrial plants, are frequently organized and the tournaments held in many cities during the winter season arouse considerable public interest. The fact that women have become patrons of the game has no doubt helped to bring about an improvement in the location and quality of bowling establishments.

VI. RURAL RECREATION5555 For a discussion of village life, see Chapter X.

Because of the dominance of the city in recreational programs, the discussion has hitherto dealt primarily with the urban situation. The need for public recreational facilities first arose in congested urban districts, and the problem has naturally been more keenly felt in places where open space is at a premium. It takes only a cursory view of the situation in the open country, however, to see that changes in rural recreational habits are already under way. The lure of modern sports and amusements is felt by rural as well as by city people. Many of the traditional leisure time activities of the open country have either disappeared or have declined to a position of relative unimportance. The partial mechanization of farm production and the wider use of factory products on the farm have largely done away with log rollings, corn huskings, quilting bees, barn raisings, and similar forms of cooperative labor which one played a prominent part in the recreation of the rural population. In a similar manner the isolation of the farm home and neighborhood is becoming a thing of the past in many rural sections. Through the automobile and improved roads, rural social contacts have multiplied many fold, and are now based in increasing measure upon age, sex, and common interests rather than upon kinship and common residence, as was formerly the case. No longer are rural people dependent entirely upon the recreational resources of their local neighborhood.

Along with this enlarging of the rural community, an expanding network of organizations, made possible by increased mobility and greater 035945range of social contacts, has developed. New organizations, some strictly rural and others definitely urban in character, have been coming into sparsely settled communities and are enlarging the opportunities for a more satisfying social life. The Grange and the fraternal societies no longer dominate the rural field but must complete with the more recently established economic organizations such as the farm bureaus, cooperative associations and junior agricultural clubs. Reference has already been made to the luncheon club's invasion of the agricultural villages, more than half of the places organizing Rotary clubs between 1925 and 1930 being towns of less than 2,500 population. The Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's Christian Association have also interested themselves in rural sections, the Town and Country Department of the former having already established itself in 1,400 rural communities. The Boy Scouts, and to a lesser degree the Girls Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls, have been enlarging their organizations to this end. The Boy Scouts now offer 17 different merit badges in agricultural subjects, of which 26,680 were awarded in 1930, an increase of almost one-third over the number awarded the preceding year.56 The growing invasion of the village and the open country by new types of organizations, frequently modeled on urban patterns and joined together by national affiliations, is not only modifying the recreational habits of the rural people but is also linking them up more closely with the leisure time activities of the rest of the country.

56 Boys Scouts of America, Annual Report, New York, 1930, pp. 85-86.

Into this modern rural world the radio and the motion pictures have entered as new types of diversion and have already attained wide popularity. Prior to their advent, commercial amusements played an unimportant part in rural life. The hostile attitude of the rural church toward the so-called worldly amusements discouraged rural patronage of the theaters, dance halls and similar forms of entertainment available in urban centers. But against the progress of the motion pictures, traditional prejudices in regard to theatrical entertainments could not long exert a retarding influence. The motion picture theaters have invaded villages as well as urban centers and with improved means of travel are now easily accessible to rural people and play a large role in their recreation.

The radio has, within the last ten years, brought commercial recreation directly into the rural home. Through radio broadcasting rural people have come into still closer contact with urban recreational interests for they can now share in popular forms of radio entertainment regardless of where they live. While radios are not yet as common on farms as in cities, their use among the rural population has become sufficiently widespread to be considered an important recreational resources. In 036946the agricultural state of Iowa 48.6 percent of the families have radios. Even in the most rural countries of that state the proportion of families having radios does not fall below one-third. With the exception of the southern states, it is safe to estimate that at least one-fourth of the rural population has access to radio programs.

When we review the program made in public provision for recreation, it is apparent that the rural population has not yet gone far beyond the development of recreational facilities in connection with their public schools. The district school has always been a local community center of real significance. In addition to providing opportunities for children of the neighborhood to play together during the school year, the school building housed many of the local leisure time activities—box suppers, lectures, debates, singing schools, political rallies, spelling bees and the like, as well as the “exercises” of the pupils to which parents were invited on special occasions. During recent years this recreational function of the rural school has been greatly increased by consolidated schools which bring together larger numbers of children and make possible opportunities and equipment for play that were formerly out of reach of rural communities. The large staff of teachers facilities specialization in recreational supervision and in such types of recreation as athletics, dramatics, glee clubs, orchestras, bands, and the like. Through the school community center movement, which has recently been making considerable progress in many sections of the country, leisure time activities of different kinds are becoming more widely available.

But in spite of this recreational advance through the public schools, many of the popular urban forms of diversion are still regarded in the country as a luxury for which no considerable expenditures should be made. In small towns and the open country the establishment of parks, playgrounds, athletic fields, golf courses and tennis courts lags far behind what has been accomplished in cities. The 1930 Year Book of the National Recreation Association includes only 73 places of less than 2,500 population in its list of cities and towns reporting public playgrounds and other recreational facilities operated by park or municipal authorities. Even when due allowance is made for inadequate reporting on the part of small towns, it is clear that the public recreation movement has made only a feeble beginning in the more sparsely settled places. Apparently, supervised playgrounds and the more expensive forms of public recreation so popular in cities impose too heavy a financial burden upon the small community. The planning for rural recreation in a regional basis and the cooperative of adjacent communities working in accord with such a plan provided a possible solution of this problem, but as yet there is no marked trend in this direction.

VII. THE COST OF RECREATION

When an attempt is made to compute the annual cost of recreation, such disconcerting difficulties are encountered that it seems impossible to arrive at more than a rough approximation of the total expenditures. First of all, recreation is not a clearly defined field but shades off in many directions with boundary lines hard to determine. Some students think that expenditures for candy, chewing gum and tobacco should be included in the recreational budget, since consumption of such commodities may be said to afford pleasure. Liquor, prostitution and gambling might be included on the same grounds, although they fall within a field proscribed by law. Moreover, there are some activities that are only partly recreational in nature and it becomes a matter of personal judgment to decide what portion of their cost should be assigned to the recreational field. Among such activities are reading, automobiling, travel by rail, water and air, and those types of clubs and associations that combine pleasure with serious purpose. An even more discouraging factor is the unsatisfactory nature of much of the available data. Comprehensive figures for the entire country cannot be secured for all recreational activities. The cost of some items must be computed on the basis of scattered data which may not be representative of the general situation. Municipal expenditures for recreation are available only for cities of 30,000 population or more. There is no way of estimating the cost of the informal visiting and entertaining which constitutes a large share of the recreation of millions of people. It is especially unfortunate that for one of the costliest items, the use of the automobile for pleasure, reliance must be placed upon general estimates about which there may well be considerable difference of opinion.

The cost of recreation as here presented has been confined to those classes of leisure time activities discussed in the previous sections of this chapter. Such items as candy, chewing gum, tobacco, liquor, prostitution and gambling—as well as many of the luxuries that are closely associated with the enjoyment of leisure—have been excluded. Attention has chiefly centered upon sports, games, pleasure travel, amusements, clubs and leisure time associations, all of which enjoy social approval and fall directly rather indirectly within the field of leisure time pursuits.

The nature of the data has made it advisable to report the cost of recreation in round numbers. These approximations, however, have been arrived at through a careful study of existing sources and the general estimates used are those issued by competent authorities. An effort has been made to present the minimum rather than the maximum cost of recreation. In cases of doubt estimates have been reduced to a more 038948conservative figure. Because of the difficulties involved, it has been impracticable in all cases to include a proportionate allowance for capital investment in addition to current expenditures. It is believed that the items omitted, or only partially included because of lack of data, more than compensate for any overlapping in the figures given or over statements in regard to any particular class of expenditures. Since information about all items was not available for 1930, certain portions of the estimates were based on figures for 1928 and 1929. The grand total arrived at, therefore, should be looked upon as a general statement of the recent annual coat of recreation rather than as a statement for the year 1930.

The Cost of Recreation.—The annual cost of recreation reaches a total of more than ten billion dollars, as will be seen from the estimates in the statement that follows. This is a huge sum even in these days of big business, and an important item in the financial expenditures of the American people. One of the surprising things about it is the fact that nearly two-thirds of the total must be charged against vacation travel and the use of automobiles and motor boats for pleasure. Commercial amusements cannot compete with the insatiable desire for travel and are forced into a secondary position as far as financial expenditures are concerned. Games and sports, and related devices and facilities, as included in Section E of the statement, when added to the governmental expenditures which fall largely in this field, are shown to cost a little more than a billion dollars and stand third on the list.

The total given in the statement does not include such items as the following: governmental expenditures for recreation in cities under 30,000, admissions to places other than the movies where the fee is less than 75 cents, admissions to entertainments such as the grand opera, symphony concerts, etc. not subject to federal taxation, annual dues for recreational clubs of $25 or less, the cost of informal entertaining in homes and elsewhere, and a considerable number of other miscellaneous recreational expenditures for which figures could not be secured. As a consequence, therefore, the figure given for the annual cost of recreation may be regarded as a minimum estimate. On the other hand, the major expenditures are included and it is probable that the items omitted might not add greatly to the total.

Governmental Expenditures for Recreation.—The most recent data on governmental expenditures for recreation indicate that the total amount spent annually for this purpose is close to $193,410,000, approximately three-fourths of which is expended by cities. The total recorded municipal expenditure was $147,179,000 in 1928. Unfortunately no figures are available for the cities of less than 30,000 population; hence the total given must be regarded as considerably below the recreational outlay for all the cities. The $28,331,000 spent by the various states during

039949

Estimated Annual Cost of Recreation (In thousands of dollars)

Amount of expenditures

A. Governmental expenditures:

1. Municipalities$147,179

2. Counties8,600

3. States28,331

4. Federal9,300

Total$193,410

B. Travel and Mobility:

1. Vacation Travel in U. S.—

(a) Automobile touring3,200,000

(b) Travel by rail750,000

(c) Travel by air and water25,000

2. Vacation travel abroad—

(a) To Canada266,283

(b) To Mexico55,642

(c) To countries overseas391,470

(d) To insular possessions1,326

(e) Alien American tourists abroad76,000

3. Pleasure-use of cars, boats, etc.—

(a) Automobiles (except touring)1,246,000

(b) Motor boats460,000

(c) Motor cycles10,796

(d) Bicycles9,634

Total6,492,151

C. Commercial amusements:

1. Moving pictures1,500,000

2. Other admissions166,000

3. Cabarets and night clubs23,725

4. Radios and radio broadcasting525,000

Total2,214,725

D. Leisure time associations:

1. Social and athletic clubs125,000

2. Luncheon clubs7,500

3. Lodges175,000

4. Youth service and similar organizations75,000

Total382,500

E. Games, sports, outdoor life, etc:

1. Toys, games, playground equipment113,800

2. Pool, billiards, bowling equipment12,000

3. Playing cards20,000

4. Sporting and athletic goods500,000

5. Hunting and fishing licenses12,000

6. College football21,500

7. Resort hotels75,000

8. Commercial and other camps47,000

9. Fireworks6,771

10. Phonographs and accessories75,000

Total883,071

Total annual cost of recreation57$10,165,857

57 It should be noted that almost one half of this total is accounted for by the various pleasure uses of the automobile. Hence a slight variation in the method of calculating the proportion of automobile expenditures for recreation might produce a wide variation in the estimated total cost of recreation. See text for discussion of method of estimate.040950

1928 includes such items as fish and game conservation, operation of state parks, and acquisition and improvement of new property designed for recreational use. Four-fifths of the federal expenditures for recreation are for the maintenance of national parks.58

58 U. S. Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics of Cities, 1928; U. S. Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics of States, 1928; U. S. Department of the Treasury, Combined Statement of Receipts and Expenditures, Balances, etc. of the U. S., 1930. See also figures given in Chap. XXV.

Travel and Mobility.—Pleasure travel, which constitutes by far the largest item in modern recreation, costs, according to the best available estimates, more than six billion dollars a year. By far the largest item is automobile touring, which, according to an estimate made by the American Automobile Association, accounted for $3,200,000,000 in 1930.59 Of this amount, approximately 80 percent went for such items as lodging, meals, amusements and other purchases made en route, while 20 percent was spent on actual transportation costs. It is difficult to arrive at a satisfactory estimate of the daily pleasure use of the automobile exclusive of touring. The estimate of $1,246,000,000 to cover this important item was computed as follows: If we accept $350 as the average annual cost of operation per passenger car (including depreciation, interest on investment and general upkeep), the expenditures for the 21,554,000 passenger cars, estimated to have been in actual use in 1930, amount to $7,544,000,000.60 It seems safe to assume, in view of recent traffic surveys, that at least one-fourth of the use of passenger cars is for recreation. On this basis we have $1,886,000,000 to cover the total amount spent on motor cars during 1930 for both touring and short daily trips. Since 20 percent of the general expenditures for motor touring, as given in the above estimate of the American Automobile Association, represents charges for car operation, $640,000,000 was deducted from $1,886,000,000 which leaves $1,246,000,000 as the approximate amount spent for the daily pleasure use of the automobile exclusive of touring. While the total costs of the recreational use of the automobile mount to an extraordinary figure, the estimates have been figured on a conservative basis and are believed to be justified by the facts.

59 American Automobile Association, Research Department, Recreational Travel in 1930, Washington, D. C.60 This amount does not seem excessive in view of the fact that it represents a rate of 5 cents for each mile of automobile travel on the assumption that passenger cars are on the average driven 7,000 miles a year. See Chap. IV for estimates of number of passenger cars actually in use and average annual car mileage.

The expenditures by American tourists abroad in 1930, according to figures issued by the United States Department of Commerce, were $790,721,000.61 The editor of Motor Boating states that $460,000,000 is expended each year on motor yachts.

61 U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, The Balance of International Payments of the United States in 1930, Trade Information Bulletin no. 698.041951

Commercial Amusements.—The amount spent in admissions to motion picture theaters is estimated to be $1,500,000,000. This was computed on the basis of 100,000,000 admissions per week at an average admission price pf 30 cents. This estimate of motion picture expenditures is perhaps too low, for the weekly attendance during 1930 probably was closer to 115,000,000 and 40 cents may not be too high for the average cost of admission. If these latter figures are used as a basis for computation, the annual expenditure would be $2,392,000,000.

During 1928, the last year in which general admissions of more than 75 cents were taxed by the federal government, the total spent by the public on theaters, concerts and other entertainments subject to this tax, computed from the entire amount received by the government from this source, must have been more than $166,000,000. Since few motion picture theaters charged an admission above 75 cents, the estimate for admissions to shows, exhibitions, etc. may be regarded as an expenditure additional to the amount spent on motion pictures.

On the basis of the federal tax paid by cabarets, roof gardens, night clubs, etc., the amount spent on this phase of commercial amusement during 1930 was at least $23,725,000.

The total retail sales of radios and radio part in 1930 amounted to to $500,951,000, a decline of 40 percent over the high record set during the preceding year. To this should be added between 25 and 30 million dollars collected by broadcasting stations from advertisers, thus bringing the total cost of radio entertainment of approximately $525,000,000.62

62 Film Year Book, New York, 1929; U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1929, 1930; U. S. Census Bureau, Census of Manufacturers, 1929; National Advertising Records, New York, January, 1931; Radio and its Future, Martin Codel, editor, New York, 1930.

Since there are other forms of commercial amusements for which no satisfactory estimates of expenditures are possible, because of lack of data, the total estimate of $2,214,725,000 for the whole field of commercial amusements is probably much below the actual amount spent.

Clubs and Associations.—Annual dues and initiation fees paid by members of recreational and semi-recreational organizations are important items in the cost of recreation. The income of the purely recreational clubs and associations having annual dues of $25 or more, computed from the federal taxes paid, amounts to more than $125,000,000 year. The amount expended on luncheon clubs and fraternal societies, which are exempt from federal taxation, can only be roughly approximated on the basis of average dues per member. Computed in this way, the total annual dues of luncheon clubs, at $15 per member, are at least $7,500,000, while the fraternal societies collect annually from their members $175,000,000, if we assume that the yearly membership fee is no more than five dollars. To the above should be added the expenditures of the youth service 042952associations and other organizations interested in providing better recreational facilities for the general public. The budgets of the more important organizations falling in this class amount to about $75,000,000. The grand total of $382,500,000 for associations in the leisure time field is a conservative minimum estimate, for there are other types of organizations with functions that are at least partially recreational which might also have been included.62

62 U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1930; Statistics, Federal Societies, Rochester, New York, 1930; and data supplied by luncheon clubs and other organizations.

Games, Sports, Camping, Etc.—Some of the important items in this group are reported separately by the Census of Manufactures; and since information is also available concerning the amount of exports and imports, it is possible to arrive at a fairly accurate estimate of the cost of these items to the American public. Sporting and athletic goods purchased in 1929 had a retail value of approximately $500,000,000. Toys, games and playground equipment absorbed $113,800,00; phonographs and accessories, $75,000,000; pool, billiards and bowling equipment, $12,000,000; and fireworks, $6,700,000. Federal tax during 1930 was paid on 48,000,000 packs of playing cards, the retail value of which must have been at least $20,000,000. Hunting and fishing licenses cost the American public $12,000,000 during 1930. Admissions to college football games amounted to approximately $21,500,000 in 1930. The amount paid for admissions to baseball and other professional games and contests is subject to federal tax where the admission charge is 75 cents or more, and has been included in the section on commercial amusements. There is no way of determining the public expenditures for games where the admission charge is less. At least 100,000 persons attend the 1,350 commercial summer camp, and their expenditures at an average of $300 per capita amount to $30,000,000. The 1,140,000 people who, in 1929, attended the summer camps maintained by welfare organizations spent $17,000,000, if the average expenditure per person was $15. Guests at summer and winter resort hotels, according to the 1930 hotel census, spent about $75,000,000. It is significant that the total expenditures, amounting to $883,000,000 for this miscellaneous but important group of recreational activities, are considerably less than half the amount spent for commercial amusements.64

64 U. S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1929; U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1930; U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Documents No. 1098; U. S. Department of Agriculture, YearBook of Agriculture, 1931; U. S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Distribution, 1929; Social Work Yearbook, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1929; Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 3, New York, 1930; cost of football based on information secured during this study; estimate for sporting and athletic goods is based on data furnished by U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.043953

Trends in the Cost of Recreation.—The data presented in the preceding sections of this chapter furnish ample evidence for the conclusion that the past decade was an era of rapidly mounting expenditures for recreation. There can be no doubt of the trend away from the simple and less expensive leisure time pursuits to those that are more costly; bicycles have been replaced by automobiles, and canoes have given way to motor boats. Quiet vacations spent at home or in closely adjacent localities have been supplanted by vacation motor tours covering many hundreds of miles and involving considerable financial outlay. No popular outdoor games of a generation ago required even a small fraction of the expenditures that are now made to provide facilities and equipment for the playing of golf. An important characteristic of present day recreation when compared with that of the past is the general increase in its cost.

Still another factor in the nation's growing recreational budget is the trend toward wider participation in leisure time activities. Vacation motor tours bulk large in the cost of recreation because 40,000,000 participate in this form of pleasure travel; and attendance of over 100,000,000 people a week is the explanation of the nation's enormous motion picture bill. During this past decade record breaking crowds have attended baseball and football games, prize fights, horse races and a variety of other sports. The increasing number of participants in outdoor sports and games has necessitated large financial outlays for recreational facilities easily accessible to the mass of the people. Modern types of sports require considerable space for their enjoyment. The acquirement of suitable land for this purpose, in or near cities where playing facilities are needed, involves heavy expenditures both by municipalities and by private clubs and organizations. The municipal investments in public parks already total more than two billion dollars, and the present park acreage is less than half the space needed. At least three-quarters of a billion dollars are invested in golf courses and club houses and there is still a demand for more golf facilities. The expenditures for recreation have constantly mounted during the past ten years because of the effort to keep pace with the unprecedented demand for more space and equipment for play.

This rising tide of recreational expenditures has paralleled the upward swing of the business cycle, and the remarkable progress attained was made possible by the widely prevailing business prosperity. The present financial depression has already adversely affected certain recreational activities to a marked extent. Some of the country clubs have been forced to disband; many others have been forced to curtail their expenses. Municipalities under the necessity of economizing have made the first cuts in their recreation budgets. Many public recreation workers have been thrown out of jobs and the development of new recreational areas has been postponed. Recreational travel has shown a marked decline 044954during the past two years. Apparently the curve of recreational expenditures reached its peak in 1929, and since then has been going sharply downward. While prediction at such a time is uncertain, the fact that the provision of recreational facilities has not been able to keep pace with the public demand gives reason to believe that expenditures for recreation will again increase as soon as business conditions improve.

VIII. CONCLUSION

This brief survey of recent recreational developments gives some conception of the magnitude of the leisure time field, as well as its growing importance in present day affairs. The trends that stand out most prominently and seem to be characteristic of the whole movement may be summarized as follows: interest in active participation in games and sports; the nationwide vogue of automobile touring and pleasure travel; the development of outdoor life and vacation activities; acceptance of governmental responsibility for providing public recreational facilities; expansion of the field of commercial amusements; the desire for amusements that provide thrills and excitement; preoccupation with the outcome of competitive games and sports; popularity of forms of recreation that promote social relations between the sexes; and the development of organizations that facilitate recreational interests. More briefly, the two most important trends in modern recreation in this country have been the widespread development of commercialized facilities for the enjoyment of passive amusements, and the rapid growth of private and public facilities for participation in a large variety of games and sports and other active recreational activities. From the point of view of numbers reached, commercial amusements, largely because of motion pictures and the radio, seem to occupy the leading position, but when costs are taken into consideration, the bulk of our recreational expenditures must be charged against active rather than passive forms of leisure time pursuits.

On the whole, the field of recreation, as it has developed in recent years, represents a distinct advance over traditional ways of spending leisure time. The growing participation in athletic sports and games and the popularity of outdoor life are assets from the point of view of health and social well being. The active forms of recreation now so widely available are recognized as important factors in building character and preventing delinquency. The modern passive amusements, while by no means always of high quality, are an improvement over those prevailing a generation ago. The recreational devices now existent in so many forms play an important part in giving relief from the monotony of daily toil and adding to the enjoyment of life.

On the other hand, this rapid advance in modern recreation is attended by problems and difficulties which should not be ignored. The effort to 045955keep pace with new types of recreation has discouraged thrift and increased the cost of living. The popular demand for parks, playfields, golf courses and bathing beaches has placed additional burdens and responsibilities upon both private associations and local governments. The extraordinary desire to win games at all costs rather than to enjoy sport for sport's sake makes heavy demands upon energy and frequently turns play into work. Th great concentration of interest in modern sports and amusements tends to force into the background, at least for large numbers of people, the leisure time activities of an intellectual and cultural nature.

But however disturbing and important considerations of this nature may be, the problems of greatest public interest are those concerned with the inadequacy of existing recreational facilities and with methods for bringing about their further development and control. In spite of the fact that billions of dollar are spent each year for recreation, there are still large sections of our population not adequately provided with wholesome leisure time facilities. It is conservatively estimated that our municipal park acreage should be doubled in order to meet the requirements of the present urban population. This lack of park lands is especially noticeable in the more congested residential districts of large cities where neighborhood parks and playfields are far too few to meet the needs of those living under crowded condition. Although a great advance has been made during the past twenty years in providing public recreational facilities for young people living in such areas, their opportunities for wholesome recreation are still far from adequate. Today as in the past they must depend upon the motion pictures, dance halls, pool rooms and perhaps other less wholesome institutions for a large share of their diversion. The small number of open spaces and prevailing high land values where the population is dense make it exceedingly difficult to solve this problem. The present tendency to purchase outlying park lands is of great value to the city as a whole but dos not satisfy the need for neighborhood playfields. A more effective way of dealing with this situation may be the greater utilization of school building and grounds after school hours and during week ends and vacations as local play and recreational centers for residents of the immediate neighborhood. This would necessitate a much larger play space for many schools and, in some instances, a new type of school building equipped with means for indoor recreation. The present widespread failure of the public school system to cooperate fully in the development of a well rounded municipal recreation program has slowed up the progress of the modern recreation movement.

The greatly improved means of transportation and the growing popularity of camping and outdoor life have given a new recreational significance to state and national parks and forests. This, in turn, is forcing 046956upon public attention the need for preserving for public use greater areas of scenic interest in mountains and along lakes and rivers. In some states this is being accomplished in an aggressive manner by the establishment of state parks. At the present time, however, this movement is developing very unevenly in different sections of the country. Another method of accomplishing this purpose would be the establishment by the federal government of additional national parks primarily for recreational purposes, especially in those sections of the country easily accessible from great urban centers of population. The future of outdoor recreation could be still further safeguarded by conserving the timber lands in state and national forest preserves. From the point of view of a well balanced recreational program, there is need for the preservation of more wilderness areas as well as for a more aggressive policy of reforestation by state and national governments. Closely associated with the wider development of state and national preserves is the problem of protecting wild life in order that hunting and fishing may continue as popular recreations. The great increase, during recent years, in the number of those hunting and fishing threatens the existence of these sports, unless measures are taken for the stricter enforcement of game laws and more effective efforts are made in the direction of developing game farms and fish hatcheries.

Another problem of a different kind is the devising of ways and means of better governmental supervision and control of commercial amusements. This involves suitable measures of control over motion pictures and radio broadcasting, and the regulation of dance halls, pool and billiard rooms, cabarets and road houses, burlesque theaters, horse racing and other forms of amusement provided on a commercial basis. Past experience has shown that where there is no competent supervisory authority there is always danger of lowering standards in the interests of larger profits. While the trend has been in the direction of more rigid laws and local ordinances, the problem of their adequate enforcement has not yet been solved. There can be no doubt of the right of government to prevent the sale of unwholesome recreation just as it has the right to prevent the sale of unwholesome food. Questions involving morals, however, are hard to deal with, and the government faces serious perplexities when it attempts to operate in this field. Th indirect attack upon undesirable amusements by providing recreational facilities of a wholesome kind seems in the long run to have been the most effective way of dealing with this difficult problem.

A problem that is coming more and more to the front is the need of planning for the development of public recreational facilities on a regional basis. This especially concerns the metropolitan areas where the congestion of population makes it practically impossible to provide adequate recreational facilities of a desirable kind within the city limits. The playground 047957of a modern city should include the surrounding territory, where more extensive recreational resources can be developed and made easily accessible by improved system of transportation. The recreational problem of small towns and sparsely settled sections is also closely bound up with regional planning. Where economic resources are limited because of the small number of people, it is only by cooperation on a regional basis that the desired facilities can be provided. The present problem is to suitable administrative units for this purposed and to develop a cooperative spirit that will make such a plan effective.

The foregoing problems and others that might well have been included are for the most part not new, but they gain new significance because of the increasing amount of leisure and the rapidly growing demand for more satisfactory opportunities for its enjoyment. However difficult their solution, modern forms of recreation have become so deeply rooted in our social fabric that there can be no thought of going back to the simpler pleasures of an earlier generation. To a degree hitherto unknown, sports, games and amusements have gained recognition as a vital part of human living and are accepted as a necessity for which provision must be made. The depression is temporarily curtailing some of these activities but there is no evidence of any declining interest. During the next few years the curve of recreational growth may not rise as rapidly as in the immediate past, but there seems to be no doubt that it will continue to move upward. What is needed is a larger degree of statesmanlike planning that has yet been attempted in order that the further development of the recreation movement may be as much as possible in the interests of the general welfare.