UNITED STATES MAGAZINE AND DEMOCRATIC REVIEW. ~To1. II. APRIL, 1S3S. No. V. THE BANKS AND THiS CURRENCY. EVERY age appears to have its predominant characteristic from which may be derived its special designation, in its place in the long series of the centuries. Without inquiring into the propriety of the n~imes whch the different metals have given to former ageswhether the iron, the brass, the silver, or th goldnone will question the right of the present to the style ad titleemphatically and par cx- ceilenecof the PAPER AGE. Under this name its history, present~ ag so many tremendous convulsions of society, accompanied with uo many remarkable phenomena, is yet to be written, for the asto- nishment of posterity. Under this name, the chronicle of the nineteenth century, so wise in its generation, is to record one of The most extraordinary instances of the gullibility of mankind, on ~a vast scale, to be found in that curious volume, the History of Hu- man Humbug. It might be supposed, indeed, that if any thing short of a voice from the dead would awaken the mind of the whole people to the real character of this stupendous modern fraud upon the industry of the mass of society, the history of the past few years would have accomplished that object. We r gret, however, to have to con.. fess, that there app ars much reason to fear that but very im- perfect advantage is about to be taken, by the community, of the lesson and the opportunity for a reform of our banking sys- tem, afforded by the recent erkis. It is greatly to be lamented that the subject has been brought into the arena of our general politics, and the pernicians consequences of this unholy connec- tion will probably lo% make themselves felt. That there havQ nxisted some radical ckfects in the system, some essential prin- ~iple of evil or othe ~, generally admitted by all; as also the necessity of considerable salutary reforms in it, to save the com- munity from the future recurrence of the suffering which have grown 4 The Banks an[ the Curre~wy~ April,~ out of it,.yet very little progress seems to have been made in the settlement of public opinion upon any definite ideas of the nature and extent of those reforms, or of the time and mode of their applica- tion; and there really appears great reason to apprehend that little or nothing may in fact be done. If the resumption of specie pay- ments shall take place at an early dayas is rendered probable, at least in a portio of the Unio~, by the disposition evinced by the banks of New Yorkthe business of the country, after the exhaus- tion and sckness consequent upon its recent state of intoxication, will soon resume its wonted course. In that case little or nothing, compa- ratively, will be done. The banking interest, if it shall prove suffi- ciently powerful to chain down into subjection the throes and sting- gles of rhe body politic in the very height of the convulsion, while itself under~all the disadvantage and odium of a state of suspension, will scarcely have much to apprehend when that period shall have passed, the impotence of legal restraints and penalties upon it~ enormous powers proved, and the spirit of resistance on the part of the public shall have subsided, in the same degree with the restora- tion of its own undisputed ascendency. By one of those unconscious instincts of sagacity which are always observed in the action of great interests, when endangered by the consequences of their own vicious principles, and which operate with all the directness of deliberate design and method,it has eagerly thrown itself into the arms of one of the great parties of the country for safety and support; while it has been not less eagerly met half-way by that party, glad to web come so powerful an ally, to aid the siege in which it is engaged upon the ascendency of the Democratic party in the administration of the government. The consequence we see. The peculiar advocacy of that interest is taken up by that party, and urged with a clamor that astounds and bewilders the country. The Administration is falsely charged with a design to destroy it. The most preposterous ideas are set afloat, and forced along with a vehemence which keeps them in circulation in despite of their own plain absurdity. The credulity of party spirit is taxed to the utmost, and proves its appetite to be really without limits, ever growing with what it feeds on. The natural timidity of moneyed interests is played upon, till it is excited to a point of panic utterly senseless and irrational; and the strong hold which the banking interest possesses upon the whole business com- munityfrom the state of perpetual dependence generated by the credit system on which all its operations have been based for so long a series of yearsis strained to such a degree, as to array four-fifths of those portions of the community in the front ranks of the bitter- est opposition to the Administration,to the clearest and soundest ideas of economical truth,and to a policy which really is directed to their own best interests. Meanwhile the true issues in the contest are ~83S. The Banks and the Currency. 5 ~ehanged or lost sight of. The public mind is confused amidst the dust and clamor of the party strife. The Opposition insistin spite f all truth, justice, and argumentthat the issue is between the preservation and the destruction of banks, between the continuance of the credit system and a compulsory and exclusive metallic cur- rency. Every argument directed against the abuses of the system hey greet with a shout of execration, as an impious blow aimed at its sacred existence. They will not even tolerate aay neutrality on the question. They will not even permit the Federal Government to disconnect itself altogether from the contending partiesto stand aloof from the turmoil and the dange~ of the struggleto give up that vast source of political influenceto collect, keep and disburse its own revenues by its own independent actionto use a small fraction of the large additional stock of specie which its policy has brought into the country, for the purpose of securing future tability and uniformity in its fiscal action,at the same time that they insist that paper i~ a better currency than specie! That the government ~s unwilling, after its late severe experience, again to lend it the use of the public revenue, again to connect itself with the fluctuations and dangers of speculation and comm rce, again to enter into an alliance with moneyed interests, so pernicious in its effects upon bothis regar ed as an attack, as exhibitin0 a ruthless determination o destroy! They will admit of but two sides to the questionits xvo extremestolerating neither a middle ground, nor a fair neu- trality, and insist that all who are not with the banks are against them Under which king, ~ezonian? Speak or die! Meanwhile, all calm and candid discussion of the abuses and evils of the system, and of the most proper and practicable reforms to be applied to them, is drowned amidst the general party outcries of Executive corruption, usurpation, tyranny, loco-focoism, & c., & c. While the admission of the necessity of some reform or other is enerally made, all specification is carefully shunnednay, treated as treason. In short, it is perfectly apparent, that if this plan of opposition, to overthrow a party in power and seize upon their vacant places, is to succeed, notlei~ig will, in point of fact, be done. The crisis will pass and be forgotten; and the nation will bave to pass through yet another cycle of the operation of the system, through another similar round of revival, activity, enterprise, speculation, cxpansion and explosion, before it shall have reached that point of final maturity for reform, which must yet inevitably come,thongh if we now eglect to take the favorable tide at its flood, for what period we may have to wait on the banks, in patience and long suf- ering, is not to be calculated. That the States are not yet prepared t~ apply the hand of reform, 6 The Banks and tfte C rrency. [ApriY~ fearlessly and wisely, to the system, is too evident. Most unfortunately it is a question which has now come to be looked upon only in a party point of view, and not on its own simple merits, as one of universal and common interest. rfhey will still go on vitiating the currency by legislative tampering, till they shall have b en plagued nine times for their perverseness. With, perhaps, various sectional modifications,. some for good and others for evil, the present system is, it seems, t~ be continued by the States. The Federal G overament will not inter- fere in the contest between the bank and anti-bank opinions, so long,. at least, as under the sway of the political school by which it is now directed. As soon as it shall have planted itself firmly on the ground. of independent neutrality on which it is now strug~ling to establish itself, against so furious an opposition, it will stand in a safe and tran-~ quil po ition, aloof from the struggle. Released from the pressure of private interests, and from the mutually injurious operation of the mu- tual influences existing between them when unitedsufficient tlz itself,. in its fiscal action, by the use of the o ly medium possessing an intrin- sic and uniform value, safe from depreciationeconomical on com- pulsion~ from the very nature of that medium rendering any large redundancy of revenue impossibleand resting under the broad folds of the banner of vi~x CONSTITUTION, carrying out the acknowledged intention of the hard-money men who framed itthe Federal Government will not, as it ought not, participate in that contest, on the one side or the other; b t leaving each State to regula~e and re- form its local instit tion and local currency, on its own principles. will confine itself to the discharge of its federal duties, on stricter principles of limitation of construction and of action, than has ever be- fore been possible, since the fatal ascendency a quired at the outset by the Hamiltonian policy whose bitter fruits we are now reaping~ It is not, therefore, in any direct connection with the policy of the Administration, as a subject of party contest, that the follow- ing views, upon the banking system existing in this country, are conceived; and w trust that they will not be received by any in that light, but simply as a contribution to that fair discussion of the merits of the system, as a question of the highest interest to each individual State, in which all parties ought to meet, in a spirit of calm and~ truth-seeking candor. If, as has been remarked above, this is the age of Paper, oni- land may also claim the distinction, above all others, of being its spe- cial favored country and home. The paper-money ii fatuation seems to have taken a stronger hold on the mind of our people, than upon any of the other commercial nations of the world; for we have not the excuse that can be pleaded for England, upon whom the system wa insidiously fastened by the despotic power of her aristocracy, and? rivetted with such massive strength and weight, by means of h - 1838j The Banks and the Currency. National Debt, as to make it seem impossible to cast it off, except by a revolution of physical force of which the convulsion, both to herself nnd to the commercial world, would be tremendous,though, we doubt not, eventually beneficial. But with us the creation and continuance of the system have been purely voluntary,the act of our own people through their representatives, artfully deluded to their own deep and lasting injury, by selfish interests, false habits of legislation, sophistical arguments, and the imitation of British example. And even now, after all the bitter fruits of our folly which we have so often been made to taste, though all forei~n writers unite in condemning our banking system as the very worst of all possible banking systems, and many predict its necessary final explosion, yet how fondly do we see the mind~ of a large portion of the l)eople clinging to it as the ark of our salvation, the parent of all our na- tional prosperity and civilization. Banks, more banks,is the con- stant clamor at every session of every lebislature. That is the word more frequently on our lips than any other. National banks, State banks, Deposite banks, Pet banks, Mammoth and Lilliputian banks, great and little, are the hue and cry from the St. Croix to the Sabine, and even to the Lake of the Woods, where the Washtenah Bank, and branches of the Illinois Bank, spring up from a fertile soil with all the ease and quickness, if not the numbers, of the wild rice or prairie grass,while, meantime, every street and lane is haunted with the ghosts of broken banks, stalking dismally amid the scenes of former speculation! We are friendly to banks; none are more clear and decided in their appreciation of the important function which belongs to them, as labor-saving machines in the transactions of commerce, and of the general business of society. But we are not friendly to their abuses, nor to the vicious principles, combined with the good and useful, in the system of banking which has gro~vn up in this country. Nor shall we be deterred from freely urging the radical reform~ of the former by any senseless clamor that would impute to all such re- marks a general design of hostility to the whole system. We are friendly to banks, when organized on correct principles, and faithfully administered, with reference to their proper objects,which are, the concentration of capital, and the accommodation of legitimate credit for the convenience of commerce and industry. But we do protest, heart and soul, against some of the monstrous crudities of the day, in relation to this subject, repugnant to the plainest principles of political economy, with which we see so many men, in other respects rational and sensible, possessed, seemingly with as profound a con- victionbecause so assured by a party press and the organs of the banking interestas though they were proofs of holy Writ. The original idea of a bank was merely to constitute a common 8 The Banks and the Currency~ [April, and safe place of deposite of surplus funds, for the merchants of a particular city or neighbourhood, one large common receptacle being considered more convenient and economical, though at the expense of a slight compensation for the safe custody, than a number of small wdividual ones. Such deposites were neither loaned out by their guardians, nor paper-money issued on the strength of them, beyond the simple certificates of deposite. These constituted of course a sort of paper-money, possessing all the advantages of form of that medium, and representing bona fide an equal amount of real money or metallic value; and might be, as they in fact were, assigned and transferred at pleasure, for the sake of commercial convenience, to save the necessity of actually transporting the coin itself to any dis- tance. The only risk attending this system was, of course, the chance of possible dishonesty on the part of the guardians of these deposite banks,a risk manifestly amounting to nothing at all, it be- ing a private transaction between the bank and the depositor, whose vigilance and caution would easily secure sufficient guarantees for the security of his money. This was the original germ out of which has grown the giant tree, whose branches now may almost be said to overshadow the earth. Every subsequent departure from this original and simple kind of banking, has added other and greater perilssome, indeed, of a character not to be deprecated, because from the nature of things nec~essarily incidental to the principle of credit, in its soundest and most legitimate form,others, however, of a most pernicious cha- racter in almost all points of view. Thus, when such an institution, from its original character of a bank of deposite, passed into that of a bank of discount, and loaned out the moneys accumulated under its custody, there was added the risk of failure in repayment on the part of the borrowers. This risk, was, however, compensated by the interest paid for the use of the money, and could readily be guarded against by careful attention to the securities on which the loan was based. The loans being limited to the exact sums placed there as capital and deposited for convenient custody, excess was impossible, and the temptation to carelessness in speculative loans was suffi- ciently obviated; and while the restriction of them to small amounts in favor of any one individual, and to usiness transactions alone, onstituted the most ample security to the proprietors and depositors, the public could not, in any event, sustain any injury by the vitiation of its currency. A bank of discount thus restricted became a very useful and con- venient instrument to facilitate the general business operations of the community, and to promote the activity of its enterprise and in- dustry, and the developement of its resources. It was created, not for the purpose of making or circulating new money, but of using 1838.] The Banks and the Currency. 9 from a common centre the money which was before on hand, scat- tered in small sums ainong individuals. By collecting all such spare and idle sums to one common receptacle from a convenient distance around, they would become more active, more productive, and more beneficial to the proprietors, as well as to society. From being dormant and unproductive, they would be quickened into useful life. The proprietors, from receiving little or no interest, at the expense of much trouble and care, would receive a fair and constant rate, without personal attention; the enterprising and the industrious who needed only the assistance of some borrowed capital to pro- duce a valuable contribution to the general stock of wealth, could readily procure it, on fair terms of mutual advantage; and to those who needed it a paper medium could be furnishedbeing real money put into the form of paperfor the purposes of distant remittances or large commercial payments, being more convenient and economical than the actual specie represented by it. Here would be a legitimate credit system. It would be the con- centration of scattered capitaL for the purpose of lending it to those who could make the best use of it. It would be real credit, or con- fidence extended by those who possessed capital to those who pos- sessed the qualities requisite to be united to capital to make it productive and valuable, namely, industry, skill, and fidelity. And if there was not a sufficient supply of tile former in the community, to satisfy the reasonable demands of the latter,arising out of the cir- cumstances of a new country, teeming with undeveloped resources, and inhabited by an enterprising and intelligent population,the only, and the certain, consequence would be, that it would flow in from forei an countries, differently situated, and where money was less productive, and therefore less vc Inable, to fill the vacuum of the demand up to the full point of the requisite supply. No physical law of nature is more certain in its operation, than the law of demand and supply, in the great Republic of Commerce which is composed of all the producing and interchanging nations of the earth. It is equally applicable to money as to any other commodity; and no mistake can be greater, than to suppose it necessary, or in any possi- ble point of view advantageous, for any particular community to at- tempt to increase its supply by artificial means, under th3 idea that the world does not contain enough to satisfy its extraordinary de- mand, or that its fair proportion is not enough for its wants. The proposition, even though it may be gravely advanced by fifty lawyers and statesmen no less eminent than a Webster, is an absurdity, and a self-contradiction, in terms,for a countrys fair proportion is nothing more nor less than the supply required by its fair and healthy demand. Such attempts must always result in failure, and 10 The Banks and the Currency. [April, the self-inflicted punishment of the folly and ignorance from which alone they can proceed. Such banks as here described would prove institutions of the high- est utility to the community, nor would any differences of opinion exist as to their value. Their increase would he a benefit instead of an evil; and they would never fail to organize themselves by vol- untary association, if left free to do soderiving their capital from whatever quarter of the globe should furnish it at the cheapest rate to any extent required by the wants of the country. But when to these legitimate and healthy fnnctions the power was superadded to make issues of paper money, heyond the certificates of real capital invested or deposited in the hank, and always ready for their actual boncifide conversion, the character of the institution became chan,ed; the highest prerogative of sovereignty became transferred to it, that of the creation and regulation of the value of the circulating medium; its action acquired a public instead of a simply private character, exercising a direct infiucuc e upon the value of all the property and labor of the community; the system became immediately surrounded with numerous hazards and temptations; and the utmost caution in legislation, and vigilance in the execution of the laws, became insufficient to prevent constant abuse, accompanied with an incalculable amount of public and private evil. This is the root of all the mischiefthe two functions of creating and lending the currency being united in the same hands, both under a perpetual natural stimulus to excess, and both subject to no other restraint than the discretion and immediate interests of those who exercise them. This is the odious feature in modern banking which has kept the currency of those countries which have been so incav- tious as to submit to it, in a constant state of unsoundness, fluctua- tion and peril. It is impossible for the soverei a authority in any society to be too careful, in the exercise of its habitual prerogative of coinage, to abstain religiously from any attempt to interfere with the natural laws of trade by which the real value of all commoditiesincluding money as well as any otheris regulated, and on the whole eventu- ally equalized throughout the commercial world, with the due allow- ance for the expenses of transportation and interchange. The ex- periment of such interference has been frequently tried, in ages and countries of semi-barbaric ignorance, by arbitrary changes in the value of the circulating medium, whether by alloys of the current coin, or by an artificial enhancement of its nominal value; but the natural laws of trade, even when most hampered and perverted by legislative regulation, have never failed to rebuke all such attempts of despotic quackery. It is true, that such an edict would increase in a given ratio the whole nominal amount of money in circulation 1838.] The Banks and the Currency. II in the country,the opponents of the foolish and wicked measure be- ing silenced by the grave assurance, that there was not gold and nilver enough in the world for its exchanges without recourse to this admirable invention for increasing its apparent amount; but it is also no less true, that such attempts have always been founded in fraud, on the part of the governing power from which they have proceeded, and for xvhose benefit they have been devised, and have resulted in the most pernicious consequences to the community at large. It is also true, that they have always eventually terminated in failure and disappointment, no arbitrary legislation being equal to the task of struggling against the tides of trade of the commercial world, and of maintaining for any length of time a false standard of value, enhanced above, or depressed below, the regular specie standard~ established by the universal practice of the world. The result of all such experiments has been, to explode utterly the fallacy on which they were founded, an(l to establish the truth that, in coin- ing and regulating the value of the circulating medium, the legitimate power of governmentsbeyond which they cannot go without certain failure and dis~raceis limited to a faithful adhesion to the pure and strict specie standard. But how ingeniously has the art of mO(lern banking evaded this established truth! And how asto- nishing that its shallow sophisms should have bcen able to delude so considerable a portion of the popular intellige ace, as to make it be- lieved, that to its operations are due all prosperity and greatness of the country ! We are really at a loss which most to wonder at, the impudence of the attempt, or its success. This poxver of varying at arbitrary discretion the value of the currency established by the law of the land at home and the law of the world abroad, by arti- ficially expanding or contracting its apparent amount, which no go- vernment would dare to attempt to exercise, itself, in the face of the civilized world and of the nineteenth centurywe have seen dele- gated to a legion of private corporations, under a constant tempta- tion, from the natural laws of self-interest, to abuse itand that, too, without any restriction as to the extent or mode of its exercise, ex- cept the elastic and indefinite one of credit and public confidence. This is, as has been above remarked, the root of the whole evil, and poisonous indeed to all the best interests of society has been the influence of the vast upas-tree which has grown up out of it, casting its shadow over the whole length and breadth of the land. The attention of the English mind has recently been turned strongly, by the severe experience of the consequences of this fatal fallacy, to this subject, and the opinion is gaining ground rapidly, that it is to this that the axe of radical reform must ere long be ap- plied. The two functions of creating and lending the currency must be separated, because, from their very nature, it is impossible for 12 The Banks and the Currency. [April, them to co-exist in the same handswhether public or privatewith- out the most pernicious abuse. We are convinced that no system of banking, however organized and regulated, can be secured against the evils which have resulted from the practice both in En0land and in this countryand in a still worse degree with us than in the mother countryif its restrictions stop short of establishing this es- sential principle. It must come before long, in both countries, what- ever may be its immediate apparent consequences,though what amount of suffering is yet to be endured, before public opinion shall reach the full point of ripeness for the great but indispensable reform, we cannot estimate. The charter of the Bank of England will, virtu- ally, expire in 1843, having been renewed in 1833, for txventy-one years with liability to recall at the expiration of ten, and much good may be anticipated from the discussion now agitating the public mind. An effort will be made to oppose its continuance. It will not proba- ably be successful, from the vast array of interest and influence by which that Institution, and the general system of which it is the head, are supported; but its charter will not probably be renewed for a long term, and at every successive struggle between reason and power, on the question of rene~ Tal, the former will acquire fresh strength at the expense of the latter; and we verily believe that the present generation will not pass away without witnessing that grand consummationthe overthrow, or the radical reform, of the Bank of England, and its hole piper money system. It is to be regretted that, from the various causes alluded to at the commencement of this article among which the principal is the unfortunate party charac- ter which seems to have attached itself to the questionpublic opi- nion is not perhaps even on a par in this country, in its degree of developement in relation to it, with England. We see but little reason to expect from the States, in their new legislation on the subject rendered necessary, over the whole Union, by the recent ex- plosion of the system, any other course, than an attempt to patch and prop it up again,with perhaps some additional restrictions and some immaterial amendments, without touching the real set~d of the disease,for another experiment, of which the result will be not less certain nor less pernicious than has been witnessed already so often in the operation of the system. The extent to which this delusion has proceeded in our country, of the imaginary conversion of mere credit into real capital, will be readily perceived from a few figures and facts, which will speak to the understanding of every reader with an eloquence beyond the power of any rhetoric. We derive them chiefly from the Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the condition of the State Banks, made in January, 1838. On the 1st of January, 1830, the aggregate capital of the banks in Lie 1838.] The Banks and the Currency. 13 United States was 145,192,268 dollars; their deposites 55,559,928, in all 200,752,196. Their loans and discounts at the same period were 200,451,214, exactly equalling the joint amount of capital and deposites. On the 1st of January, 1838, their aggregate capital was 290,7~2, 091 dollars; their deposites 127,397,185,in all 418,169,276. Their loans and discounts at the same period were 525.115,702, (nearer three tirne8, than twice, the amount of loans in 1830!) exceeding the joint amount of capital and deposites by not less than 106,946,426. We have here assumed the private deposites in the banks to be, as so much capital invested in the banking business, a legitimate basis for discounts. But is such an assumption correct? The prac- tice is not general to any extent, in this country, of depositing mo- ney in banks on interest, for a given period of considerable length, constituting an investment on the one part, and an accession of available capital on the other. This might be done to mutual advan- tage, by making a proper difference in the rates of interest, allowed by the bank to the depositor, and charged by it in its loans to the community. It is not, however, the practice. For what purpose, then, are depositesmade? It is clear that they are made by capital- ists for convenience merely of custody, not to be surrendered up to the bank for its use or disposal, but for the constant active use of the depositor, himself, by means of cheques. They are made chiefly by private money-lenders and brokers, through whose operations those funds are in constant and active use; they are constantly trans- ferred from one person to another; and if, while liable to be drawn at any moment, they are permitted to remain, it is still only for the convenience of the parties who own, and are still constantly using, them. Excluding, then, their deposites, in our comparison of the amount of loans with the legitimate basis existing for such loans, it will ap- pear that the excess of discounts above the aggregate capital of the banks was not less than 234,343,611,or not very far from twice the amount of capital! The amount of interest paid by the commu- nity (exclusive of the whole amount of private usury growing out of such a state of currency, too enormous to be estimated) upon this surplus over and above the capital invested, is not less than about sixteen and a half millions of dollars! And whatit might naturally be asked by a stranger upon whose mind the apprehension of this stupendous so-styled credit system should for the first time openwhat is the specie basis upon which this vast amount of paper-money is founded? The whole amount of paper-money in circulation is, as above stated, not merely the amount of bank notes in circulation, but must, of course, comprise also the deposites of which the representative cheques circulate for 14 The Bcznlcs and the Currency. [April, the larger transactions of business. The former were 149,185,890; the latter, as before stated, 127,397,185,in all 270,583,075. r~ his entire amount professes to be at all times immediately convertible into specie, and founds its title to currency and value upon that pre- sumption. The specie in the vaults amounts to 37,915,340making every dollar of specie represented by seven or eight soi-disant dollars of paper! This proportion varies in different sections, ac- cording to the degree of expansion to which the abuse and delusion here referred to have been carried. On the first of January, 1837, the proportion of specie to the aggregate of notes and deposites was, in the New England States, as one to between fourteen and fif- teen; in the Middle States, eight and nine; in the Southern States, six and seven; in the Southwestern States, seven and eight; in the Western States, five and six; and in the Bank of the United States, five and six. Nt the same time, within each of these general divi- sions, great inequalities in the proportion existed in particular sec- tionsso, in Pennsylvania the issues of the banks were sixteen to one of their specie in New Orleans, in June last, seventeen to one; and, in July, forty seven-banks in the State of New York, west and north of the Hudson, had a circulation of fourteen to one, and circu- lation and deposites of eighteen to one. In the county of Iiunpshire in Massachusetts, the proportion was forty-one to one. The view here given, of the extent to which we have carried the delusion of the conversion of mere credit into apparent capital, and of coining it into a currency professing to be equivalent to real money, will be strengthened by a reflection upon the mode in which the actual capital of a large proportion of the banks is formed. It iswell known that, as a general rule, they commence their banking operations, and the coinage of their paper-money, on the payment of an instalment of their capital, made, probably, through the paper of other existing banks of a similar character; and in many cases the whole of the remaining portions of capital is produced, in one way or another, solely out of the materials afforded by the banking operations thus commenced. The entire incompetency of a National Bank to regulate a system whose very first principles are thus essentially false and vicious, has been thoroughly demonstrated, again and again, both by argument and by the fact. Without going back to former dates, as for instance 1819 and 1825, it is sufficient to refer to the part sustained by the Bank of the United States in the late crisis, to show that the a priori argument against such a regulator, derived from the obvious fact that it is itself based on the same principles (Quis custodiet ipsum custodem?) is fully sustained by the evidence of experience. It is curious and instructive to see, that the excess of loans by this bank above the aggregate of its capital and deposites, was, in the autumn 1838.] The Banks and the Currency. 15 of 1834, only two or three millions; but within the course of the first half year of 1835, had swollen to the enormous amount of twenty millions, or one-fifth of the whole present excess in the Union! Comment on this one broad and simple fact is needless. So much for the boasted restraining power, curtailing influ- ence, and salutary check, exercised by the Bank of the United States, when in full operation, upon the State institutions. Here we see the prolific source of that bloated air-bubble system which exploded last ~ay,a system which, even under the supposition that the whole capital has been bona fide paid in, exhibits the enor- mous amount of about two hundred and thirty-five millions of dol- lars of loans, unsupported by a single cent of moneyed capital about a hundred and seven millions beyond even the aggregate of capital and deposites,about two hundred and seventy-six millions of note and cheque circulation, and about a hundred and fifty mil- lions of note circulation alone, resting on a foundation of less than forty millions of specie! Under the blessed influence of such a credit systemwell, indeed, deserving the name, since it rests upon credit and credit alonewho can wonder at the extravagant follies of which a whole nation has been seen to be guilty, in the belief that a short rail-road cut to wealth had been invented, as the grand consummation of the commercial civilization of our age?a road which was entirely to supersede the old beaten track of industry and frugality along which our fathers used to toil their slow but steady xvay. Who need won- (ler at our luxurious indulgence in the purchase of sixty millions of dollars worth of foreign fabrics above the amount of our own ex- portsat our importations of grain, by the millions of bushels, from the shores of the Baltic and Black Seasat our speculations in lots from Canton to Grand Cairofrom South Boston to Rock Is- land Cityfrom wild lands in the alligator swamps of the South to the most sterile sands and pine plains of the Northfrom India Rub- ber corporations to Culpeper gold mines, Wisconsin saxv-mills and Texas cotton bottoms? And, finally, who need have recour~e to specie circulars, or loco-foco specie doctrines, to explin the as- tonishing phenomenon of the explosion of so magnificent a bubble? Enough has been said to illustrate the leading idea intended to be conveyed, namely, that under our present banking system a power is delegated to,and freely exercised, to the highest possible point of abnse,by these private corporations, of expanding an~ con tract- ing, at the discretion of their own self-interest, the quantity of the cir- culating medium of the country, and of raising or (lEYressing its value, and, with it, the value of all the property an(l labor of the communitya power which no civilized government would dare itself to exercise, directly, in the present age. That its effect is exaet 16 The Banks and the Currency. [April, ly equivalent to the process of multiplying the currency by means of an alloy, at the expense of a proportional depreciation of its real commercial value, at the same time that the nominal value remains the same,and also that it must eventually result in similar conse- quences of disgrace, and abandonment of all such fraudulent exper- imentsis too obvious to need illustration. The whole nominal amount of the currency is increased to twice the quantity natu- rally required for the business of the community, in a healthy state; and the proportion of specie actually represented by it is about a seventh or an eighth of the whole. Who will presume to deny, that this is precisely equivalent to the ac~t of alloying the metal- lic currency in that proportion, and endeavouring to maintain it in that form, with the old name of the full value of the pure metal, as the circulating medium of the country,in spite of the stubborn fact that foreign nations, with which we are in constant commercial relation, will not be forced, by all our legislation, and all our assurances that a convertible paper is as good, if not better, than specie, to believe it such, and to take it on our word and on the authority of our bank charters? Our restriction of space in the present article has compelled us to to confine our attention to but a single point of view of the subject which we hope may have the effect of directing the public attention to the idea, now beginning to become prevalent in England, of the necessity of applying, sooner or later, to the whole system, the great reform of a .9eparation of the two distinct functions of CREATING and LENDING the currency,or else of attaining eventually the same end by the opposite process, namely, the removal of all restrictions, whe- ther upon individuals or voluntary associations; giving the evil full scope to spend and cure itself; and placing the whole matter, free from legislative tampering and meddling, under the vigilant guar- dianship of the public intelligence, and the control of the two mutual- ly corrective principles of free association and free competition. The other important aspects which it presents, in the influence of the operation of the system upon the morals, the liberties, the indus- try, and the government, of the country, it is manifestly impossible even to allude to on the present occasion. One single remark, how- ever, must serve as a concluding moral, to bring the subject back to the sphere of general politics, as connected with the action of the Federal Government :Shall the Public Treasury continue in al- liance with, and dependence upon, a system based on such radically vicious principles, which have already produced such results of ex- perierice; which must, if unchecked, necessarily lead to similar re- sults again; and which do not seem yet likely to undergo, for an indefinite period, the only reform which can ever be thorough and effectual to reach the true source of the disease? 183& ] 17 PSYCHE, A POEM. Of Human Life I sing. A theme how vast! How full of varied interest! a theme, Comprising all that mind can meditate, All that delights the fancy, warms the heart, The whole experience of the conscious spirit Included here,the cradles infant weakness, The callow innocence of childhoods hour, Youths fervent, generous, impulsive prime, Ripe manhood, powerful, persevering, calm, The hoary wisdom of declining age. Birth, Life and Deathwhat multitudes of thoughts Cluster about these points! What mysteries Perplex and please the spirit musing here! From whence? And for what purpose? Whither ~ What? Answerye stars above, whose shining points Have often been the alphabet by which Man, or by devious conjecture led, Or haply following some instinct sure, Has syllabled the secret voice of Fate. Answerye billows of the sounding deep, Whose solemn roar chimes most harmoniously With the high moods of the reflecting soul. Ye odorsthat from root, or twig, or bloom, t~reet the dull sense, and stimulate the mind; Ye flavors spread by Nature on her feast, Surpassing all luxurious ~art can do, To invent a piquant relish, to excite The languid nppetite of pampered wealth; And thou nice sense of feelin ~,, that dost dwell In every part of mans exterior frame, Can ye contribute aught to solve the maze In which we daily walk? Answerthou reasning principle within, Discursive, that dost pass with cautious steps From cause to consequence, or back again, Can the unbending rules by which thou movst Point out some sure criterion, by which Truth may be gained infallibly by man? VOL. II. NO. V. B. Psyche. ApriL Answerthou higher atjribute than Reason, Intuitive faculty, eye of the soul, Can thy far-reaching gaze discover aught, That merits to be called the end and aim Of this brief, transitory scene of life I There is one answer, and but one that meets Inquiries like these,Natures eloquent voice Returns it, as we listen to the sound Of roaring waters, and of rocking woods. Reason returns it, so we but consult Its living & racle within the breast. And Faith, intuitive, spontaneous Faith, Springs forward to the goal ordaind of Heaverk Religion is the sole philosophy, The key that opens all the doors of life, And brings its hidden passages to light. Sun of the Universe, else dark indeed! The top and crown of all men Science call Divine Economy that binds in one All things above, around us, and within! Of all the creatures formed of old, by God, None fair as Psyche, or so well endowd. Already had the realms of Chaos heard The quickning mandate of the Eternal Word; Darkness had rolled away; the first-born, Light, Disclosed the secrets of primeval night; Tree, plant, and shrub already had begun To feel the ripning influence of the Sun, The Seasons round the Earth their gladsome race to run~. Nor yet in vain had Nature opd her hand, And scattered blessings over sea and land; Creatures of various appetite abound, Swim, fly in air, or tread the solid ground. To each his proper element assigned, Where each peculiar nutriment may find. What numerous wants exist on every side! How wisely given, generously supplied! Goodness of Nature amply testified! But Wisdoms master-work was yet unseen, A being far superior in mien, Gifted with powers of higher excellence, Susceptible of pleasures more intense;

Psyche. ApriL Answerthou higher atjribute than Reason, Intuitive faculty, eye of the soul, Can thy far-reaching gaze discover aught, That merits to be called the end and aim Of this brief, transitory scene of life I There is one answer, and but one that meets Inquiries like these,Natures eloquent voice Returns it, as we listen to the sound Of roaring waters, and of rocking woods. Reason returns it, so we but consult Its living & racle within the breast. And Faith, intuitive, spontaneous Faith, Springs forward to the goal ordaind of Heaverk Religion is the sole philosophy, The key that opens all the doors of life, And brings its hidden passages to light. Sun of the Universe, else dark indeed! The top and crown of all men Science call Divine Economy that binds in one All things above, around us, and within! Of all the creatures formed of old, by God, None fair as Psyche, or so well endowd. Already had the realms of Chaos heard The quickning mandate of the Eternal Word; Darkness had rolled away; the first-born, Light, Disclosed the secrets of primeval night; Tree, plant, and shrub already had begun To feel the ripning influence of the Sun, The Seasons round the Earth their gladsome race to run~. Nor yet in vain had Nature opd her hand, And scattered blessings over sea and land; Creatures of various appetite abound, Swim, fly in air, or tread the solid ground. To each his proper element assigned, Where each peculiar nutriment may find. What numerous wants exist on every side! How wisely given, generously supplied! Goodness of Nature amply testified! But Wisdoms master-work was yet unseen, A being far superior in mien, Gifted with powers of higher excellence, Susceptible of pleasures more intense; 183g. I Psyche. 19 Not limited to appetites control, Being of Reason, Fancy, Feeling, Soul; Part animal, and yet the animal refined; An earthly body and a heavenly mind, For noblest actions and delights designed. Such Psyche wasan effluence from God, Celestial life quickning a mortal clod, A lambent flame, within a vase of clay, Through the translucent vessel sends its ray. Of all material things, that clay most fair, Mixed and attempered with the nicest care; Moulded by Beauty to most exquisite grace, With form attractive, and with radiant face, Where every passion found appropriate place. Does Psyche with some strong emotion swell? The kindling eyes her inward raptures tell. Do gentler feelings agitate the breast? The throbbing pulse and quivering lip attest. The faintest movements of the conscious soul In rosy clouds upon the surface roll; Soft as the hues oer northern heavens spread, When fair Aurora leaves her eastern bed, And with rough Boreas consents to wed. At Psyches incarnation, lo, a choir Of sister spirits, hovering in air, Thus chanted forth their gratulating strain: Go, thou daughter of the sky Youngest of our family Germ of heavenly life! descend, To the Earth thy footsteps bend. Spark from fires that ever burn Round th Eternals dazzling throne! See, just launchd on beings tide, Waits the bark its pilot-guide. Goilluminate the clay With thy bright celestial ray. Joys from Earth to thec~ shall flow Grosser natures never know. Mark those infant limbs and face, Buds of every future grace, Through them breathe thine influence warm, Quicken, beautify, inform. 20 Psyche. [April, Earth shall be a school to thee, To educate thy infancy. Goand when thine errands done, When lifes rapid race is run. Then return to us on high, Germ of Immortality! To the spirit land return, With the freshness of thy morn. Joy to Psyche downward tending, Youngest of our spirit train; Earth and Heaven are sweetly blending, In one person mingled twain. Mortal with immortal mingling. Flesh and spirit united now, Go, and in the cradle swinging, Flush across t.he tender brow. See thine essence take no earth-spot, As through scenes of sin it goes; Like th~ diamond, brightly shining Though exposed to rudest blows! Thus sped by spirit voices, Psyche hied, Awhile the shocks of mortal life to bide, To quaff its mingled cup of sad and sweet, To thread the mazes of uncertain fate, To battle with the evil powers that stand, Armed, in the worlds choked ways, a fearful band; Her bud of childhood opened soon, and spread Into the flower of youth; upon its head Serenest skies their sweetest influence shed. Awhile with Pan and sylvan deities, She tasted the delights of rural ease; The torch of Science lighted Psyches way To the still nooks where cryptic Nature lay; She watched, with ravished eye, her varying moods, Her changing colors, graceful attitudes: She hears the music of the echoing woods, Wanders at will in verdant solitudes, Where the brisk hum of traffic neer intrudes. Now~underneath thick branches spreading wide Upon the xvind-swayed shade, or near the tide Of gentle river, cooled by pendant boughs, Beneath whose dipping twigs the current flows, She lies at length upon a bed of flowers, And waits the passage of the sultry hours; lS3S. I P8yche. 21 While strldulous insects on the summer air Mimic the murmurs of the sea afar, Or to the drowsy ear seem like the shouts of war. Nowscreened and sheltered in some leafy bower, She hears the music of the summer shower. The blazing sky is overcast, Reviving Nature breathes again; A grateful darkness gathers fast, And brings the welcome rain. Large drops now fall around, And singly beat the dusty ground. Now faster fall the drops, Pattering on forest tops, As if innumerable feet Upon the green roofs beat, All hastening to and fro, Loves ministry to do. Meekly the flower spirits hold Their cups of silver and of gold, Those delicate children of the Sun As if their sire for them had spun Their robes,the lilys virgin hue, The regal roses crimson die, The violets celestial blue, That, clad in beauty, they might woo The rain-god, sweeping through the sky, To fill their vessels with his precious dew. See the transparent nectar swell, Curving upon the brim How far behind, Arts best essays! How poor Etruscan skill, Seen and admired in far-famed vase, Or urn with sculptured rim! Art imitates with feeble lines The forms that Natures hand designs. And now the Sun again looks forth, With a fond lovers gaze, Upon the glistening Earth Like Beauty rising from the sea, So dripping from her heavenly bath, A bride arrayed deliciously, Earth smiles beneath the rays! 22 Psyche. [April, NowPsyche walks a-field, and listening hears The cheerful ploughman stimulate his steers; The polished share furrows the virgin sod, Where future harvests shall upspring and nod: Nowdeep in forests where the awful calm Is broken but to startle and alarm, Where Satyrs leap and sport, an uncouth crew, The unshorn strength of Nature meets her view, That taming art or science never knew. Not without charms such scenes to polished thought, And so the ancient fable lively taught The little monster, of whose form the sight Forced his aifrighted nurse to instant flight, Was carried to Olympus by his sire; The gods behold him, and the gods admire: Into an ecstacy the immortals fall, By tenderest names their favorite they call, And Pan, the monster Pan, is All in All. Nowwith chaste Dian, oer the mountains head, Psyche pursues the animated chase, Snuffs the keen breath of morn, and flies apace, Where blooming Health and air-born Vigour lead: The Goddess, with cold glistening eye, and cheek Painted by Labour, and with agile steps, Turns from the downy couch where Luxury sleeps, Where Sloth and Lust with late indulgence reek, And bids her youthful train the fragrant uplands seek. Like Amphitrite in her wave-borne shell, Bold Psyche tempts the dangers of the deep, In coralline gardens of the sea to dwell, Or mount upon the ridge of billows steep. Her beaked bark drives furious to land, Pursued by tempests rushing on the strand; With biting flooks, the anchor grasps the ground, The maddened tempests swing the vessel round, While through the rattling shrouds the winds resound. Not so where Winter rules the northern year, From icy throne surveys his regions drear, Or on the diamond pavement plants his tread, Whilst quivering draperies canopy his head: Earth-shaking Neptune trembles at his word, In crystal dungeons doomed to rave unheard; 1838.j Psycke. Loud gales in vain above his head may roar, And blow their challenge at his prison door, The ocean-monarch heeds the sound no more. On the smooth shore, when gales were lulld to sleep, Young Psyche watched the gambols of the deep: In mild repose its boundless billows rest, And gentle breezes play upon its breast; No motion stirs it save the easy tides, That wash the bibulous beachs sloping sides. Young sea-gods are abroad to try their force, ~Urging their chariots on the well-worn course, See how their rival steeds curvet and bound! With nimble feet they beat the sandcd ground, Oer intervening rocks, mark how they spring, And high in air their shining manes they fling! Curbed by a skilful hand, their goal they know, Then wheeling round, with refluent speed they go, Once more, and yet again, to ebb and flow. But hark! what blast disturbs the air sei~ene ~ The storm-god, borne on cloudy wings, is seen: He mounts with rapid flight the eastern sky, Coruscant lightuings darting from his eye. The hosts of Ocean hear the stern command, The sea-fowl hear, and screaming seek the land; Deep calleth unto deep, and caves repeat, Through their sonorous sides, aloud repeat The boisterous alarmagain repeat. The angry waves over bold headlands leap, And join their surly brethren of the deep; Vain are Earths slender barriers to oppose Their might, or to support their heavy blows. The harvests bend, and mourn their ruined pride, Trampled beneath the overwhelming tide; Ceres, alarmed, flies from the rude embrace, If Earth so hardly hold her rocking place, What are the efforts of mans feeble race? But not alone from Natures influence felt Did Psyche grow; in cities too she dwelt, Where men in near society unite, Where mind on mind impinging, brings to light The prodigies of imitative art. There Architecture bids her wonders start, ~a3 24 Ps~yc7ie. (Aprib Mimics the ceiling of the oerhanging sky, And rears those monuments that testify Of ancient acts, and fame that will not die. TherePainting, rainbow art, exerts her skill, To copy living forms, or, better still, Shapes to the eye what History tells the ear, And bids her honored shades in groups appear. ThereSculpture chisels, from the marble mass, Colorless images, that frequent pass, In waking dreams or sleep, before the mind, From th accidents of flesh and blood refined, Spirit-like forms, the outlines of ethereal kind. ThereEloquence reigns; in Senates lifts her voice, And gives direction to a peoples choice; Persuasion winged waits from her lip to fly, And gives commanding lustre to her eye Or when with Passions tongue the crowd she fires, Some popular sentiment their breast inspires, Through the live~mass leaps the electric flame, One impulse urges, and the shock the same, Making one look, one pulse, one soul, one aim: Or when in rigorous Courts she dares appear, And wets the eye of Justice with a tear; Or when, with Prophets mien, she spreads abroad, The insulted mandates of Creations Lord, And driving guilty men from every nook, Makes their ears tingle with the sharp rebuke; Oras an angel of the Covnant, given, Blood-sealed assurance, to the good, of Heaven, She pleads with human souls to turn and be forgiven. ThereMusic forges her invisible chain, That binds in welcome links the charmed soul; As when the Hebrew Miriam and her train Went out, and made the glad airs volumes roll With the exulting sound of timbrels loud; She learned the art in Pharaohs capital proud, And with it swelled the anthem of the free, When Israels Sovereign triumphed gloriously, Oer horse and rider thrown into the sea. The Muses lead young Psyche to their bowers, And strew her pathway ~vith their sweetest flower~ To utter liquid sounds they train her tongue, And teach her all the mysteries of Song; 1838.] Psyche. 25 With happiness of phrase to express the mind, And for its jewels golden frames to find; In numerous verse to chant fair Freedoms praise, To lure the passionate to virtues ways, And round the brow of Truth to scatter Fancys rays. To them belongs the office to repeat, In polished strains, the actions of the great. Embalmed by them, heroic names shall lie Tombed in the worlds capacious memory. The virile virtues of some former age, And epic deeds, excite their highest rage, Such as the Grecian bard engraved for men On his frail leaves,more durable theyve been Than brass or marble cut with iron pen. Theirs is the task, to range through Natures fields, And cull the choicest images sh eyields; To pass the flaming bounds of Space and Time, And soar through unknown worlds on wing sublime; Such the grand theme which the blind Briton sung, His ravished ears on heavenly music hung And, highest of all, tis theirs, with pious lays, And holy hymns, Devotions heart to raise, And teach the sons of men the Almightys name to praise. But the fair world was not alone designed By varied spectacle to train the mind, To exercise the power of thought, and rouse Imagination by its splendid shows: A gentler ministry s assigned to Earth To disclipline the heart, and to give birth, By its relations full of tenderness, To the sweet charities our homes that bless, And form the higher sentiments no language can express. In homes sweet scenes our best affections grow, And from this fount our purest p!easures flow. Fugacious essences are all our joys; The world excites them, and the world destroys. More rapturous feelings, Psyche, thou shalt know, When years are on thee, than possess thee now, But never shall thy after-life dispense So pure a happiness, though more intense, As now is present to thy innocent sense. 26 Psyche. [April, o never shall thou know again the peace Which now, clear fount, glasses thy surface oer, Till thou hast run thy destinated race, Dashed oer the rock of youth with foam and roar, Borne thy full volume through its middle course, And disembogued thee in thy Ocean-source: Thereby an infinite power shalt thou be pressed, And the meek quiet, now upon thy breast, Be realised once more in thine Eternal Rest. It is not in gay childhoods careless hours We fully know what happiness is ours. Young life can but materials impart From which we may construct our future heart. Tis when from ripened manhood we look back, And run in memory on our youthful track, We estimate the strength of early ties; Those slender filaments are cable plies; In pleasant thraldom bound the willing spirit lies. o who so dull to tread his place of birth, As if it were no more than common earth; As if the river on whose gentle wave His mimic navies to the winds he gave, Were not more dear to memory than the streams Which flow forever in the scholars dreams; As if from out its tide, to Fancys eye, There rose not forms, with those sweet Nymphs to vie, That peopled flood and fount in lovely Arcady? Ask you, whence springs the enthusiastic glow That warms the Patriots breast whereer you go, That sentiment which consecrates to all Our country, let her bounds be great or small, Which bids us love her, though in chains she sit, Ignobly crouching at a Despots feet? Amidst the play-things of our infant days This noble passion its foundation lays, And only with our dust, the sentiment decays !~ Flag of my country! in thy folds Are wrapped the treasures of the heart; Whereer that waving sheet is fanned, By breezes of the sea or land, It bids the life-blood start. IS3S~ I Psyche. 27 It is not that among those stars The fiery crest of Mars shines out: It is not that on battle-plain, Midst heaps of harnessed warriors slain, It flaps triumphant oer the rout. Short-lived the joy that conquest yields; Flushed victory is bathed in tears; The burden of that bloody fame, Which shouting thousands loud proclaim, Sounds sad to widowd ears. Thou hast a deeper, stronger hold, Flag of my country! on the heart, Than when oer mustered hosts unfurled, Thou art a signal to the world, At which the Nations start. Thou art a symbol of the power, Whose sheltering wings our homes surround; Guarded by thee was childhoods morn, And where thy cheering folds are borne, Order and Peace are found. Flag of my favored country, hail! Blessings abound where thou dost float; Best robe for living Freedoms form, Fit pall to spread upon her tomb, Should Heaven to death devote. Wave over us in glory still, And be our guardian as now! Each wind of Heaven kiss thy cheeks! And withered be the arm that seeks, To bring that banner low! Nor Patriotism alone sprang up, and grew From the small seed which playful childhood threw: Young Psyche, bounding over hill and plain, None to rebuke her, nothing to restrain, Quaffing with joy at every fountain head, Partaking of the sweets profusely spread On creeping vine, armed bush, and branching tree, A lesson thus learned all unconsciously, Inscribed, fair Freedom! on the Earth by thee. 2$ Psyche. (April, O much-prized Liberty! soul-stirring theme! Art thou some phantom-shape, that haunts the dream Of Poet reaching for a good unfound? Dost vanish when we seek to clasp thee round? Can no philosopher before his eyes Detain thee long enough to analyze? A being thou must be of other sphere; Why does thy shadowy figure mingle here, Midst every day events, thou vast, but vain, Idea! Grant, if you will that Freedoms but a theme, On which the fond enthusiast may dream Yet, on the green Earth wide, theres not a heart Whether it beat in common clay, hath part In the vile drudgeries of coarsest art, Or, in its heaven of thought, burn as a star apart, Theres not a heart hut to like tone is strung, As swelled the hymn * which burst from Prophets tongue, When oer a tyrants fall this voice of triumph rung The staff of wicked men Gods arm hath broke, Shivered the sceptre which the Tyrant shook. His unremitted strokes of wrath now cease The whole Earth rests,even the forest trees, Which thou didst hew thy pomp and pride to install, Rejoice and triumph loudly oer thy fall. Nor shall thy dust in quiet grave be blessed, Nor shall thy spirit with the happy rest; Swung open wide are the infernal ports, The watchful keeper of those gloomy courts Proclaims thy coming ;from their regal seat, The crowned shades, rising in pallid state, With grinning irony thy presence greet, And bid thee welcome, mighty Potentate! Ha! thou too fallen, Lucifer! from Heaven! Aha! as one of us art thou become! Thouto whose limbs a downy couch was given, Art now a fellow-lodger with the worm! Thouin thy heart that saidst, with impious boast, Ill mount the sky,above the starry host Will I exalt my throne,I will be God, Beholdin dust thy carcase now is trod! A proverb shall thou be to all the world; * Sec Isaiah ch. xiv. 1838.] Psyche. Is this the man, they shall exclaim amazed, That made the Earth to tremble, kingdoms hurled, That made the world a desert, cities rased? In burial thou shalt not be joined to them, Whove worn on righteous brows the diadem; In glory sepulchred, repose their bones,- Thy corse dishonored shall he cast away; Renown waits not for them, nor for their sons, Their country who destroy, their people slay. NowLoves sweet passion glows in Psyches breast, And kindles soft desires, and robs of rest. Ay, wisely did the ancient fable feign Two Loves aspiring to an equal reign, They both the form of innocent childhood bore, And each a quiver filled with arrows wore; Of Beauty born, one mother they confessed, Their power is felt and owned by every breast, And by their sway altern are mortals cursed or blessed. True Love, though narrowed in its present aim, Refines the soul that kindles with its flame. The beauty that irradiates human clay Is but a hint of that Eternal ray, Which gilds the world; the gushing heart oerilows, And on a higher good its love bestows: Sublimest point to which the soul aspires, Poised now on outstretched wing that never tires, Calmly it floats amid Heavens blazing fires. But, Psyche! from the world thou shalt obtain Yet higher good, though purchased oft with pain. A better principle is lodged in thee, Conscience is thinesense of authority. Not as the lower kinds, controlled by force, Which supersedes all freedom and all choice, In human hearts a law of right is placed, Until by hardening crime it be effaced, Kingdom and Commonwealth on this are based. O sacred Law! to thee there are no bounds, Thy star-gemmed zone the universe surrounds. Thou art apparent in Heavens shining face, Beautiful Order, ruling oer the space Where Infinite Power unnumbered worlds has swung; Each keeps its place, or, not at random flung, 30 Psyche. [April. Pursues its brilliant path with aim as near As if a conscious mind burned in each sphere, But in the heart of man thy best results appear. When inward harmony preserves the soul, Each appetite reduced to wise control, No fairer object eer attracts the gaze Of Earth, than such a mans well-ordered ways. But when the stormy passions rise and swell, Oertop the height of reason and rebel, What spectacle more mournfnl can there be! What sad perversion of humanity! Well may the angels weep such sight to see. What dire deformity is this appears, In Bacchus, old in vice, but young in years! In luxury, that emasculates the mind! In lust, that leaves its slimy trail behind! In mad ambition, that would make his nod The signal for confusion, strife, and blood! He blows the trumpet of alarm around, The rage of jumping chariots shakes the ground, The rampant nations muster at the sound. Virtue s the fairest flower the world can yield; Though oft by taller, gayer weeds concealed, Though rudely trodden oft by passing feet, Its bruised head sends up a fragrance sweet; It seeks most rugged scenes, to icy steeps Where the sharp winds of winter blow, it creeps, And draws from fiercest storms life-giving power, With garlands woven from this hardy flower, Shall Psyches locks be bound, and bloom forevermore. The highest office which the world performs Is when it strengthens faith, devotion warms; In God all beauties seen do constellate, To Providence all things that are, relate. But from the Living Word that came and dwelt In human flesh, and earthly sorrows felt Mysterious link of Human and Divine ! Do rays of clearest, brightest lustre shine, And in his spotless life all virtues do combine! Meek victim of relentless vaticides! The mildest master, and the best of guides! 1838.1 Psyche. 31 Thou camst to lead fair Psyche through the grave; Strong in the courage which thy doctrine gave, She lived, and having gained from life the whole Life can impart to an immortal soul, Was ready to exchange her house of clay For the blest mansions of Eternal Day, And this the strain she breathed before she passed away: Farewellfarewellthou fostering Earth!: Thy gift of life I now resign; The spirit waits a higher birth, My useless dust he thine. From thee rich stores of thought Ive gained, Thy various forms excite the mind, Amidst thy scenes of wonder trained, I leave them all behind. The beauty that is on thy brow Waked infant passion in my heart; But higher glories ravish now, And bid me hence depart. Thy tender ties, relations dear, First gently taught me how to love; The germ which Nature started here, Must grow and bloom above. Thy stormy blasts have firmer made The spreading roots of virtues tree; The soul by cares and sorrows swayed, Rests in Eternity. But chiefly in thy radiant face, Where lower beauties meet and shine, My musing spirit learned to trace The lineaments divine. My race is run, my toils are oer, And safely reached the destined goal; And thou, fair Earth, canst do no more, To educate the Soul. I drop my chrysalis of clay, On new-fledged wings I take my flight; Up to the brilliant source of day, I rise from Deaths dark night! 32 (April, COTTON~ (SECOND ARTICLE.) ITS CONNECTION WITH MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. We proceed to offer, in continuation of this subject, some facts and views in relation to the manufacture of cotton in the United States,which, next to the growth and exportation of this great sta- ple, of which we treated in our March number, bears the most im- portant relation to the prosperity of the country. Without ex- erting the immense and immediate influence upon our commerce and currency, which we have shown to be derived from the trade in the raw material, its manufacture, both from its extent, and the circumstances under which it has grown to its present importance, has exercised a powerful agency upon the habits and pursuits of large classes of the community, as well as upon the employment of a great amount of capital. Before the cultivation of cotton began within our territory, large quantities of this commodity were imported from Cayenne, Demara- ra, the West Indies, and Brazil, for the supply of our household manufactures. The general condition of poverty and pecuniary embarrassment, which, as we have seen, pervaded the whole country subsequently to the Revolution, compelled our citizens to furnish themselves through the industry and ingenuity of their families, with many of the most necessary materials for clothing. Hand cards, spinning wheels, and looms, were regarded as ordinary and necessary articles of housekeeping, especially in agricultural dis- tricts. One after another, these implements have fallen into general disuse, as modern machines have been brought into operation in different sections of the country, and rendered it impossible for manual labor to compete with them in the several processes they per- form. The carding engine first expelled hand cardsspinning jen- nies, framesand mules then banished by degrees the old fashioned one-threaded wheel. Finally the introduction of the power loom completed the overthrow of the household manufacture of cotton, and placed the community in a state of dependence upon manufac- turing establishments, either domestic or foreign. The increase of national wealth and resources by means of these labor-saving inventions has undoubtedly been very great-though it has been questioned in other countries whether the social and moral influence produced, not only upon the individuals employed in the great establishments where these manufactures are generally carried

32 (April, COTTON~ (SECOND ARTICLE.) ITS CONNECTION WITH MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. We proceed to offer, in continuation of this subject, some facts and views in relation to the manufacture of cotton in the United States,which, next to the growth and exportation of this great sta- ple, of which we treated in our March number, bears the most im- portant relation to the prosperity of the country. Without ex- erting the immense and immediate influence upon our commerce and currency, which we have shown to be derived from the trade in the raw material, its manufacture, both from its extent, and the circumstances under which it has grown to its present importance, has exercised a powerful agency upon the habits and pursuits of large classes of the community, as well as upon the employment of a great amount of capital. Before the cultivation of cotton began within our territory, large quantities of this commodity were imported from Cayenne, Demara- ra, the West Indies, and Brazil, for the supply of our household manufactures. The general condition of poverty and pecuniary embarrassment, which, as we have seen, pervaded the whole country subsequently to the Revolution, compelled our citizens to furnish themselves through the industry and ingenuity of their families, with many of the most necessary materials for clothing. Hand cards, spinning wheels, and looms, were regarded as ordinary and necessary articles of housekeeping, especially in agricultural dis- tricts. One after another, these implements have fallen into general disuse, as modern machines have been brought into operation in different sections of the country, and rendered it impossible for manual labor to compete with them in the several processes they per- form. The carding engine first expelled hand cardsspinning jen- nies, framesand mules then banished by degrees the old fashioned one-threaded wheel. Finally the introduction of the power loom completed the overthrow of the household manufacture of cotton, and placed the community in a state of dependence upon manufac- turing establishments, either domestic or foreign. The increase of national wealth and resources by means of these labor-saving inventions has undoubtedly been very great-though it has been questioned in other countries whether the social and moral influence produced, not only upon the individuals employed in the great establishments where these manufactures are generally carried 1838.] The Factory System. 33 on, but upon the community at large, has not become so deleterious, as almost to outweigh their immense advantages as instruments of production. The discouragement to domestic industry which they have occasioned, and the contagious effects to which masses of in- dividuals, in constant association, are peculiarly exposed, have been regarded by some philanthropists as insuperable objections to the factory system. Several of the ablest writers and best moralists in Great Britain have deeply lamented its introduction into that country, on account of the wretched and demoralized condition which it has occasioned among the operatives. Such may have been its consequences where the system has been so long and so exten- sively adopted; though, of course, whatever of evil may attend its operation is to be ascribed to the operation of other causes, in the social system of the country, than to the introduction of labor-saving machinery, and the vast developement of industry and production of wealth consequent upon all such improvements. It is certain that the atrocious crimes perpetrated by means of the general organization of the manufacturers of Glasgow, brought to light by judicial inves- tigation at Edinburgh at the commencement of the present year, and which have recently been the subject of Parliamentary dis- cussion, would indeed seem to show, that the moral restraints for which the bulk of the people of Scotland have been heretofore dis- tinguished have become in a great degree obliterated in the manu- facturing districts of that country. That portion of the population of the United States who are employed in manufactures furnish at this time, we have the strongest reason to believe, a general excep- tion, as to many of the evils which have been ascribed to the opera- tion of the system in Europe. Whether they shall continue to hold their present honorable position in this respect, which there appears no reason to doubt, must depend of course wholly upon themselves. We have certainly no hesitation in saying, that, if the object of being enabled to compete with our mother country in manufactures, whether for the markets of the world or for our own consumption, had to be purchased by the fearful amount of social evil, to immense masses of population, on which the manufacturing greatness of England has been built, we had far rather that every factory should be rased to the ground, and their operatives dispersed over the rich public domains of our West, though even at the expense of an en- tire (lependence on the cheap but degraded and demoralized labor of the old world. Anxious as undoubtedly were the patriots of the early days of the Republic, to make our country independent of foreigners for the actual necessaries of life, they were deeply impressed with the great axiom of economical science, that no manufactures, uncongenial to the taste and interests of any people, can be created by legislative en- vol. II. NO. V. C 34 Cotton. April, couragement, without exposing those who might undertake them to the greatest hazards, and at the same time committing manifest in- justice upon the rest of the community. They were fully apprized that hot-bed cultivation w s only suited to the production of luxuries. The example of England, in the relative national importance of her manufactures of silk and cotton, was under their immediate obser- vation. The former had been continually fostered, from its original establishment in that country, by prohibitive duties, hut under every possible encouragement had continually involved most of those en- gaged in it in embarrassment and ruin, requiring new measures of re- lief and assistance,while on the other hand the manufacture of cot- ton, of which the raw material was equally a foreign production, had risen to the highest national importance, not only without factitious protection, butin one of its most important branchesin defiance of laws made expressly for the purpose of repressing it. In 1720 an act of Parliament was passed for the encouragement of the other manufactures of the kingdom, especially those of silk, which im- posed a penalty on using or wearing any printed or dyed calicoes, whether printed at home or abroad, or even any printed goods of which cotton formed any part. This law entirely destroyed the printing of cottons in England during its existence. In 1736, by strenuous exertions, it was so far modified as to permit the using and wearing of printed goods containing a portion of cotton; according- ly all English calicoes were manufactured of a mixture of linen and cotton, until 1774when the vast importance to which the manufac- ture of cotton cloths had risen, in spite of the strongest legislative discouragements, compelled Parliament to repeal the prohibition. A heavy excise duty was, however, imposed upon the printing of cottons, in order to promote the consumption of the favored manu- factures of silk and linen. A fuller explanation on this subject, more appropriately belongs to our future account of the growth and manufacture of cotton in foreign countries. Strenuous exertions were made by several enterprising individuals, as well as under the authority and encouragement of some of the States, before the adoption of the Constitution, to introduce into this country the machines invented in England for the manufacture of cotton, of which the importance was constantly exhibited through the abundance and cheapness with which their fabrics were afforded. These efforts, from the strictness with which the English prohibito- ry laws against the exportation of machinery were enfoyced, were attended with little success. Drawings, descriptions, and models, were all that could be obtained. By such assistance, carding en- gines, spinning jennies, and spinning frames, were attempted to be constructed in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, and Penn- sylvania, as early as 1787 or 1788. As an illustration of the untiring 1838.] Introduction of the English Machinery. 35 zeal with which the men of that day were actuated, in endeavouring to avert the drain of specie from the country which formed the principal remittance in payment for many kinds of foreign goods, a brief explanation of the circumstances under which the production of silk was introduced into New England about this period, may be interesting to our readers. Before the Revolution, a royal filature had been maintained in Georgia for the purpose of supplying the manufacturers of England; but it was broken up by the war, and the production nearly destroyed in that State. Dr. Stiles, who died in 1795, President of Yale College, turned his attention to this sub- ject about ten years before his death. Besides being one of the most distinguished scholars and divines on this side of the Atlantic, he was a man of sound practical views, and ardent public, spirit. Having become satisfied that our ladies could gratify their taste for silks by their own care and attention, without exhausting the circu- lating medium of the country, he procured from time to time quan- tities of the seeds of the mulberry, and of the silk worm, which he distributed among the clergymen of his acquaintance, with instruc- tions for their culture and management. In many instances little attention was probably bestowed upon the matter; in others it ap- pears to have been undertaken with congenial feelings. The silk which is now produced principally by the care of the women and children of a few towns in Connecticut, of the annual value of hun- dreds of thousands of dollars, wholly owes its origin to these praise- worthy measures of President Stiles. The present extent of this culture in that region, from so small a beginning, by the agency of such feeble appliances, may serve to furnish an additional indication if so plain a principle of common sense could require supportthat legislative encouragement cannot beneficially create, and does not most effectually cherish domestic industry. But to return to the manufacture of cotton. The machines con- structed in this country, under the circumstances we have mention- ed, in imitation of the English inventions, provedwith the exception of the spinning-jenny, the most simple of the seriesto be almost entirely useless for any beneficial purpose. It was not until Samuel Slater, who had been bred in the mills erected in Derbyshire by Arkwright and Strutt, arrived in this country, and undertook the business, that the manufacture of cotton yarn of good quality by machinery can be fairly said to have commenced in the United St~ttes. The new machine, built under the superintendence of Mr. Slater, at Pawtucket, began to work in the course of 1791. A brief description of the origin and operation of these remarkable inven- tions, may gratify the curiosity of some of our readers. The carding engine was originally invented and patented by Lewis Paul, of Birmingham, in 1748. It was not however brought 36 Cotton. i: April? into a practical and useful form, until various improvements had been made upon it by the celebrated Sir Richard Arkwright, who possessed extraordinary talents and judgment in combining and ap- plying the inventive genius of others. He produced, in 1774, a complete machine so admirably adapted for the preparation of cot- ton for the use of the spinner, that it has not been improved in the slightest degree to the present day. The spinning jenny was invented by James llargraves, of Black- burn, in Lancashire, in 1764, but was not patented, nor generally known, until 1770. This machine operates upon the same princi- ple with the common wheel, but, instead of making a single thread, it may be constructed to spin a hundred at once. Yarn spun upon this machine cannot be made of sufficient firmness and hardness for warp, but only answers for weft, and accordingly the warps used both in this country and England, while yarn was principally spun upon the jenny, were usually of linen. The spinning frame, or, as it is now called, with some recent modifications, the tbrostle, operates upon a wholly different prin- ciple. The cotton being drawn through either two or three pairs of small horizontal rollers, the previously prepared sliver is extended to the required degree of tenuity by means of the increased velocity with which each successive pair revolves, when, on passing through the last pair, it is attached to a spindle and fly, revolving with great rapidity, which twist it at once into a thread of the desired hardness, and at the same time wind it upon a bobbin, in the same manner pre- cisely as is done in spinning linen yarn upon the common foot- wheel used in household manufacture. This ingenious adaptation of principles previously well known, but comparatively unavailable, was patented, and brought into use, by Arkwright, in 1769. It is, however, well established, that a patent for spinning cotton yarn by means of rollers was granted as early as 1738, to Lewis Paul before named~ upon the invention of John Wyatt; but the invention had never been made practicable for general use, until the process had under- gone material improvements from the peculiar talents of Arkwright~ This machine produced almost a revolution in the manufacture of cotton, as yarn could be spun upon it, possessing the essential qualities of evenness and firmness~ in so high a degree as to entirely supersede the necessity of linen warps. The mule was introduced into this country at a subsequent period. It is a most important and c& mplicated machine, combining the lead- ing principles of the jenny and spinning framedrawing out the prepared cotton hy means of rollers, revolving at different degrees of velocity, hike the latter, and at the same time drawing out and twisting the thread, like the former. It derives its name from this combination. The finest yarn is spun upon this machine. It was~ 1838.] The Cotton Manufacture before 1812. 37 originally invented by Samuel Crompton, of Bolton, in Lancashire, in 1779, but has since been greatly improved by Messrs. Strutt, Rob- erts, and others. The self-acting mule now in use must be regard- ed as one of the most perfect specimens of mechanical ingenuity to be found in the circle of the arts. From the commencement of Mr. Slaters career, at Pawtucket, until 1812, the manufacture of cotton, was gradually and profitably extended in various sections of the United States. Free from the disturbing influence of the speculations, which inevitably excite and depress by turns all pursuits which are exposed to the vicissitudes of political measures, the general security and prosperity of the cotton manufacture, during this period of twenty years, was unques- tionably greater than those of commercial business in general. The individuals engaged in this manufacture, found themselves pursuing a safe, profitable, and increasing business. Its increase was firmly based upon the actual demand for consumption, xvhich we have shown, in our former article, to afford the only healthy stimulus to production. The seductive, but dangerous, excitement, which invariably accom- panies legislative interference in the employment of individual en- terprise, did not materially influence this important branch of busi- ness throughout this long interval. Duties were of course levied upon the imported fabrics, which came into competition with our cotton manufactures, but they were obviously, from their amount, imposed with the single view of raising the necessary revenue, for the maintenance of the government, and general public protection. The original impost law, of fourth of July, 1789, subjected foreign manuflictures of cotton, in common with most other articles, to a duty of only five per cent. The necessity for further revenue, led to its in- crease in 1790, to seven and a half per cent. The Indian war and other public exigencies, induced an additional rate of five per cent. in 1794. This duty of twelve and a half per cent. upon manufactures of cotton, was the sole legislative protection, under which the cotton manufacture was extended in this country, to the amount of be- tween one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand spindles. On the breaking out of the war of 1812, the golden age of manufac- turing stability and prosperity at once gave place to the capricious and ruinous fluctuations, to which this pursuit has been since sub- jected, even to a more destructive extent, than those to which the growth and exportation of the raw material have been exposed. The difficulties attending importation, incident to actual hostilities with the nation from which our principal supply of manufactured cotton had been derived, gave to the manufacturers of this country the entire command of the market, excepting the limited amounts smuggled through Canada, and by way of Haiifax, or furnished by means of captures. This increased demand gave rise to a great 38 C6tfo~n. [ApriI,~ number of new establishments, in most parts of the Union, which generally afforded fair examples of the results produced every where, whenever a monopoly is enjoyed. Controlling the supply, the man- ufacturers were able to fix their own prices. While their nominal profits were enormous, the prodigality of their outlay, in many in stances, from want of sufficient care and skill, would have totally ruined any pursuit exposed to moderate competition. Thousands of individuals engaged in the manufacture, upon borrowed capital, without adequate knowledge of the business, under the full anticipa tion of realizing speedy fortunes. In many cases, these sanguine hopes were blighted by their own mismanagement; and they were at once overthrown by the news of peace, which was received in this coutdry early in 1815. Progressive improvements in the various processes of manufac- ture had been devised in England, which had not been introduced into this country, and which placed even those manufacturers who had conducted their business with competent judgement, in a very un- favorable position for maintaining themselves against foreign com- petition. rrhe power loom which had been originally invented by Dr. Cartwright, in 1785, was in the meantime brought to great per- fection, and had been rendered exceedingly important by the invention of the dressing machinepreviously to which each loom required the attentioi~ of a person to dress or size the warp asit was unrolled from the beam. By the skilfully adapted processes now introduced, the warps were prepared, before they were put into the loom, in such a manner as to require nothiug but general superintendence in the weaving, which enabled one female, or even child, to manage two, three, or in some cases four looms at the same timeproducing with a small amount of human labor an almost incredible quantity of clotL In addition to these, great improvements had been made in the arts of bleaching and printing cotton cloths, from the wonderful progress of science both in France and England. The public necessities, occasioned by the war expenditures, led to the continuation of the double duties, amounting, on manufactures of cotton, to t~venty-five per cent., which were imposed by the Act of first July, 1812; until the first of July,1816with a provision for their prospective reduction. Before that period arrived, the Act of twenty- fifth April, 1816, subjected such manufactures to a duty of twenty-five per cent., with a minimum, until the first of July, 1819, when it waste be reduced to twenty per cent.but which, as will be seen in the se- quel, never took effect. The minimum principles as it is called, was now first introduced into our tariff legislation. By a provision of this law, all fabrics of cotton invoiced at less than~yenty-five cents per square y rd, were to be taken, in the computation of the duty imposed, to have cost that price at the place whence they were imported. By 1838.1 Tariff of 1816. 39 this contrivance, the nominal rate of duties was doubled and even trebled upon the cheaper and more necessary descriptions of goods. It of course amounted to an absolute prohibition upon low priced cloths, and gave the entire monopoly to the manufacturers of this country, in the production of a great portion of the cottons worn by the industrious classes. This arrangement was adopted by Congress with two distinct objects, both of which undoubtedly influenced the different parties according to their respective peculiar views,the prevention of the importation of the cheap cotton cloths of India, whither none of the raw material produced by this country was ex- ported, and in payment for which remittances in specie had to be made to a large amountand the immediate benefit of our own manufacturing establishments,the latter consid eration being nat- urally decisive with the North and East, while the former was doubt- less mainly influential upon the South, whose Banks were in a state of suspension, which made the exportation of specie to India, and no cotton, especially odious. Under this provision, those manufac- tories which ~ crc managed with adequate capital, skill and discre- tion, such as the establishments at Pawtucket, Wathani, and some other places, enjoyed very large profits; while most of those which had sprung into existence in the manner we have described, received little permanent benefit from this legislative protection, as the course of events abundantly proved. The enormous amount of currency put into circulation by the banks which were in operation soon after the ~var, added to the vast increase occasioned by the prodigal issues of the new Bank of the United States, gave rise, as we have mentioned in our article upon the growth of cotton, to the most extravagant speculations in every part of the Union. All classes of society seemed ready to abandon the sober pursuits of industry, for the purpose of participating in the sudden wealth apparently realized by so many fortunate individuals from the continual appreciation in the prices of commodities, occa- sioned by the real depreciation of the practical measure of value. As a necessary consequence, the country was flooded with imported merchandise. The universal confidence which prevailed infused the greatest vi~or into every kind of speculative enterprise. In the emphatic language of Mr. Dallas, who was Secretary of the Treasury during a considerable portion of this period of deceptive prosperity, the American market presented a general scene of gambling and ex~ tortion. But the enchautments of l)rOspective wealth were suddenly dispel- led when the Bank of the United States, in the autumn of 1818, found itself obliged to bring ~ts operations down to the basis of sad reality. The measures adopted by the Bank, for its own preservation, were intended to produce, and actually brought about, in the course of a 40 Cutton. [ApriI~ few months, such a scarcity of currency that thousands of individ- uals holding large surplus amounts of property, estimated at the nominal valuation it had previously borne, found it impossible to comply with their engagements. Thc manufacturers of cotton, in common with all others who had adapted their business and liabilities to the precedent state of things, were at once overwhelmed with em- barrassment, and many of them with destruction. The individuals whose present property, as well as sanguine antici- pations of vast further acquisitions, was wrested from them at once by this terrible revulsion, (lid not in those days attribute their misfor- tunes to the measures of the Government. A Bank of the United States, clothed with ample practical control over the currency of the country, was in full operation. In his masterly report upon banks and the currency, made to Congress in February, 1820, Mr. Crawford shows the effect of the measu~res of the Bank of the United States, in his assertion that the active currency of the country had been redu- ced in a short space of time from one hundred and ten millions to forty-five millions. Yet the advocates and supporters of the Bank, who then, as now, exercised the most extensive influence over the organs of public opinion, attributed the wide spread desolation which had carried ruin into every section of the countrysolely to the determination of foreigners to destroy our manufacturing indus- try, at whatever cost! The source of the evils under which com- merce and agriculture equally labored, in common with manufac- tures, was, according to these economists, not the previous expansion of the currency, and its sudden and continued contraction, but the want of a sufficient tariff of protective duties We have examined some of the evidences of the extent of the re- vulsion occasioned by the management of the banks previously to and during 1819. It will be impossible, consistently with due regard to the patience of our readers, as well as the space we can conveniently afford, to give the details which we have derived from the most authen- tic sources. We cannot, however, suppress some brief extracts from these melancholy records. A convention of the friends of national industry was held, at New York~ at the close of that year, composed of delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Ohio, of which, Col. Feer was chosen president, and Matthew Carey secre- tary,who declare in their memorial to Congress, presented on the twentieth of December, 1819, that our commerce is greatly pros- tratedshipping sunk in value one-half its original costreal estate depreciated in most parts of the country in an equal de- greenumbers of our merchants, manufacturers, and farmers, re- duced to bankruptcy, and the circumstances of many of those who have escaped this calamitous situation, daily impairinga great 183g.] The Revulsion of 1819. 41 portion of our mechanics and artists unemployed, and all the fruits of their labours, which might have been daily adding to the pros- perity of the nation, are wholly lost. The fountain from which these manifold evils flowed, according to this Convention, was the importation of foreign goods, which had destroyed order and safety in business, discouraged enterprise, suspended labour, and excited serious apprehensions for the peace and welfare of the country. Such a catalogue of the destructive consequences of foreign com- merce, furnished upon the solemn responsibility of indididuals some of whom were among the most respectable and influential citizens of New York and Philadelphia, will not fail to strike many of our rea- ders with astonishment. A memorial was also presented to Congress on the seventeenth January, 1820, from a numerous meeting of the citizens of Pennsylvania, of which the venerable Peter S. Duponceau, of Philadelphia, was Chairman, which states that a capitalist could then purchase in that city, with half a million of dollars, property which one year before would have readily sold for a million and an half. The Chamber of Commerce of Philadelphia, likexvise, pre- sented a memorial, at a subsequent period of the same year, to which they affixed a scale of the prices of flour for a series of yearsfrom which it appears, upon their high authority, that the average price of flour in that great market was, in 1817, twelve dollars per barrel, while in April, 1820, its current price was four dollars seventy five cents! These respectable citizens of Pennsylvania, who must have been fully apprized of the operations of the banks, and consequent changes in the plentifulness and relative value of currency, do not appear to have dreamed that the difficulties into which every branch of business had been involved, xvere in the slightest degree owing to the alteration which had taken place in the measure of commercial value. It was wholly attributed by them, to use their own words, to the buying of cheap goods abroad! It would be an easy task to fill volumes with similar evidence of the distress, prevailing in every part of the United States, during the years 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822, and 1823. We shall content ourselves with the following extract, from the Report of the Committee of Manufactures, of the House of Representatives, made in January, 1821. This official document states, that it is not a common occur- rence, in the history of nations, that in time of peacethe people should call upon the government to relieve their distresses. Five years of peace, on the continent of Europe, have repaired the ravages of twenty-five years of war. Five years of peace in this country have authorized the official declaration, that but few examp1cs have oc- curred of distress so general and severe, as that which is exhibited in the United States. In the course of their report, this committee quote the fact, stated by Mr. Crawford, in his report of the year pre 42 Cotton. [April, ceding, that the actual currency of the country had been contracted from one hundred and ten to forty-five millions, for the purpose ap- parently of moralizing upon it, as a severe visitation of Providence but do not appear to have entertained the most remote idea, that the general destruction of confidence, and the ruin of thousands upon thousands of unsuspecting individuals, had been wholly caused by human agency, in effecting this vast revolution in the quantity and consequent value of the circulating medium. They sagely ascribed the universal gloom and stagnation, which overspread all the pursuits of life, to the absence of sufficient protection for our manufactures, and earnestly recommended an increase of the Tariff, as a sovereign remedy for the evils they so eloquently recapitulated. There ap- pears to have been, during the whole of this long continued crisis, a gener~ 1 concurrence of opinion, among those whose authority was most regarded at the time, that the comparatively low prices of com- modities, which prevailed abroad, were the original source of the uni- versal depression and distress which overshadowed the land. But it seems to have never occurred to any, that the relative high prices here were wholly occasioned by the inflation of our paper currency, and its consequent depreciation in actual value, compared with that of countries where this evil did not exist. That so plain and obvious a solution of the difficulties under which the industry of the country labored, should have escaped the public attention, would now be apt to excite surprise, had we not experienced during~ the revulsion, pro- duced by similar causes, through which this country is now passing, not only a similar disregard to its origin, but its attributi~n to mea- sures which, so far from producing it, have exercised a most impor- tant and salutary tendency in assuaging its violence, and in protect- ing the great interests of the country from detriment. The state of things which existed at the period referred to, afford- ed a brilliant occasion for several individuals endowed with talents for plausible declamation, to distinguish themselves by portraying in glowing language the outra eons wrongs inflicted upon our citi- zens by foreigners, in seducing them to purchase cheap manufactures. Appeals of that description were peculiarly captivating to national vanity. It is not in human nature, willingly to attribute any of our misfortunes to our own folly and imprudence. By shifting the re- sponsibility of the deplorable condition under which the whole coun- try then suffered, from ou. own citizens to foreigners, the general feeling of patriotism was flattered, while the compunctious visitings of conscience, which should have wrung the hearts of those who had mismanaged the poxverful corporations, which had in fact produced the existing calamities, were no doubt greatly assuaged by such bland appliances. At any rate, public indignation was diverted away from the actual authors of the public misery. Immense efforts 1838.] Tariff of 1824. 43 were made in every part of the United States, to satisfy the people that foreign commerce had been the great cause of their adverse cir- cumstances. It was sedulously inculcated, in Congress, at public meetings, and in the public prints, that the imposition of further re- trictions upon the importation of foreign commodities would entire- ly retrieve the affairs of most of those, who had actually suffered from the alternate expansion and contraction of the currency. This war- fare against common sense was carried on with the greatest zeal and perseverance. The common artifice of unprincipled politicians, of appealing to sectional jealousies, as well as national prejudices, was resorted to with great eloquence and effect, by individuals, from whose character and talents a more elevated and patriotic mode of discussing important questions of national policy might have been expected. In short, the principal agency in the measures adopted by Congress, under the pretext of protecting the manufactures of this country, but xvhich have visited upon them, from time to time, such appalling consequences, must he attributed, in fairness, not to the manufacturers generally, but to the politicians by profession, who expected to acquire an accession of influence and importance, by agitating the nation upon a subjectof so much general interest, and on which so many specious and superficial representations, of imme- diate and apparent advantages, might be paraded before the people. rfhe duty upon the cotton manufactures was fixed, as we have seen, by the Act of 1816, at twenty-five per cent., with a minimum, with a provision that on the first July 1819, it should be reduced to twen- ty per cent. Under the influence of the disasters, attending the earlier stages of the revulsion, Congress, by the Act of the t~ventieth April, 1819, continued the duties prescribed by the Act of 1816, at the highest rate, until the first July 1826. For several sessions it refused to sanction any further interference with the tariff. But finally, after earnest and prolonged discussions throughout the country, as well as in Congress, an increased tariff was imposed by the Act of twenty-second May, 1824. By this law, the nominal duty on cotton manufactures remained at twenty-five per cent., but the minimum was increased to thirty cents per square yard. This further protection, by inviting new adventurers into the busi- ness, resulted, as must have been foreseen by all who had consi- dered such subjects, in aggravating in a great degree the evils under which it had previously laboured. As we have seen in the growth of cotton, undue encouragement inevitably leads to over-production. Mr. Woodbury estimates the number of spindles that were put into operation between 1819 and 1825, to be three times greater than the whole number at work the former year. The cotton manufacture, during the greater part of this period of general distress and suf- ferin~, was, no doubt, exceedingly profitable, when managed with 44 Cotton. [April, ordinary prudence and economy. A short time, however, after the new manufactories, called into existence hy the act of 1824, went into operation, the business fell into greater depression than ever. Many large capitalists xvho had heen engaged in foreign commerce, of which the profits had become greatly diminished, as well as exceedingly precarious, were induced to embark in manufactures. A supply being created beyond the demand, prices fell, and many of the small establishments were compelled to sacrifice their products. Instances repeatedly occurred where cloth was sold at a price less than the raw cotton of xvhich it was manufactured had cost. These disasters gave rise to new clamors for an increase of the tariff, and resulted in the Act of nineteenth May, 1828, by which the minimum was raised to t hirty-five cents per square yard. A true friend of the manufacturing interests of the country, who considers the course of the protective policy, which then prevailed, in connexion with the real and permanent prosperity of those in- terests, cannot fail to be deeply impressed with the suicidal error under which some of the manufacturers were continually calling for new artificial stimulants, to be furnished by politicians, for their en- couragement. Sanguine speculators were constantly induced, by the temporary buoyancy thus occasioned, to avail themselves of the facilities afforded by the vicious banking system which prevailed in most of the States, for embarking in nexv undertakings. Loans xvere extensively obtained by such persons, upon the security of their friends, for the purpose of embarking in Thirsuits which promised such large returns, under the expectation of repaying them at stated periods from the anticipated profits of the business. The mutability of the market from the fluctuations of demand and supply, which were greatly increased by the speculationsas well as the continual expansions and contractions of the currency from the operations of the banksdisappointed most of these expectations, and involved all parties in embarrassment. This state of things was most vividly realized through all the manufacturing districts of the country in 18281829. Not only those who had recently engaged in the busi ness without sufficient actual capital, but individuals possessing the greatest experience and ample property, were involved in the deepest difficulties. Even the patriarch of American manufactures, the wor- thy Mr. Slater, whose prudence, industry, and talent, sedulously employed in the cotton manufacture during a long series of years, had been rewarded by the accumulation of an estate which was esti- mated, by competent judges, to be worth nearly a million of dollars, found it impossible to meet his engagements. The ownership of manufacturing property to any amount, was insufficient to inspire confidence among those who witnessed the wide-spread ruin which pervailed among those engaged in the business. We have seen few 1838.] The Revulsion of 18289. 45 things more affecting than two or three brief business letters, writ- ten by Mr. Slater at this juncture, which may be found in his life, published by Mr. White. That such a man should become a victim to the unwise legislation which had given rise to so many improvident speculations, after having passed through a long life of useful and successful enterprise, was indeed a hard fate. Many instances might be given which would illustrate this subject more powerfully than volumes of abstract disquisition. Among the extraordinary cases which have come to our knowledge, we will mention another, which ~v~s a matter of much interest in the State where it occurred, and where the facts remain upon its legislative and judicial records. The Dover Manufacturing Company was chartered by the State of New Hampshire, with an aggregate capital of a million and a half of dol- las. A considerable portion of the stock was taken by capitalists in Boston, though the great rise in the value of property, which the prospect of its enormous outlay occasioned in the vicinity where it was established, induced many individuals in the neighbourhood, in a period of general confidence and prosperity, to take part in an en- terprise which promised such an ample remuneration for the capital invested. The extensive purchases of real estate made by this cor- poration,its large and costly erections of buildings,the expensive machinery of the most improved kind, not only for the making of cloth, but for bleaching and printing, on a large scale, and the stock and wages necessary to put this vast establishment into operation, not only absorbed the whole capital, but left a floating debt unpro- vided for. The prices of the manufactures were then greatly de- pressed, and a further advance of money became necessary. This could not be raised by the creation of new shares, as the price of all manufacturing stock had become merely nominal. The few large capitalists among the proprietors devised a plan for raising the ne- cessary funds, by procuring a charter for a new corporation, author- ized to invest a capital of half a million of dollars, in manufactories, on the river where the Dover Company was established. This new corporation was composed of such of the holders of the stock of the Dover Company, as were able and willing to advance their propor- tionate amount of its liabilities, which most of the small proprietors in the neighbourhood, having already gone to the extent of their means, found it impossible to do, in the existing state of credit among those engaged in manufactures. rfhe shares in the new cor- poration to which they would have been entitled, were taken by the other proprietors. The whole property, both real and personal, of the old corporation, was then mortgaged to the new, as security for the advances required to carry on the busine3s. After the lapse of a short period, a foreclosure took place, and the new corporation came into possession of the whole property, and the old stockholders who 46 Cotton. [April, had not participated in the stock of the Cochecho Manufacturing Company, as the new corporation was styled, were at once deprived of all interest in eitherby acts of the two corporations, in which many of them had taken no personal agency whatever. It is need- less to add that the few proprietors who thus came into the enjoy- ment of the whole property, by depriving a great proportion of their original associates of their shares, realized the most ample profits or to intimate that in other instances, where large manufacturing corporations had become equally embarrassed by the evils of over- production, artificially stimulated through expansions of the currency by the banks, and by preposterous legislation, the leading capitalists, taking advantage of the depression xvhich invariably succeeds such a state of factitious excitement, endeavoured to follow an example so ingeniously devised, and so successful in its operation. We have given, we trust, a sufficient number of facts to show that the protective policy, connected with the banking system, has ope- rated most cruelly upon the interests of those whose welfare it pro- fessed to advance. But it unhappily appears that men, and even those who profess to be statesmen, are prone to regard immediate advantages, and to act from temporary impulses, instead of looking with a single eye to future and permanent consequences. One of the unfortunate results of this preposterous mode of en- couraging industry, by thus habitually administering artificial stimu- lants, was its deplorable influence upon the financial legislation of Congress. It inevitably induced an habitual extravagance of appro- priation of the public money, which was calculated to impair the purity and simplicity of our republican form of government. Those members of Congress, who usually voted for levying taxes upon the people, not exclusively for the support of the Govern- ment, but for the purpose of fostering individual pursuitswhich, by a gross perversion of language, was miscalled THE AMERICAN Sys- TEM, though it was wholly imitated from the barbarous and exploded notions of the corrupt monarchies of the eastern continentalmost invariably supported every ingenious pretext which could be de- vised for the most lavish expenditure. We feel confident of being within bounds when we state, that the aggregate of appropriations, not asked, for the various branches of the public service, by the es- timates of the responsible executive officers, but which have been made by Congress during the prevalence of this system, have ex- ceeded a hundred millions of dollars. We would not be understood as doubting or questioning the right of the Representatives of the people, to apply the money raised from them, by taxation, to such objects as are within their constitutional scope of duty. But we can not repress our opinion, that many of the modes of absorbing the public revenue introduced and supported by some of these Re- 1838.] Evils of the Protective Policy. 47 presentatives, would never have been tolerated among their consti- tuents, but from the miserable feelingunworthy of every just and honorable mindthat others would be compelled to bear a greater relative portion of the burden occasioned by such measures, than themselves. Such liberality with the money belonging to others is destructive of all true public morality. Another great source of the inevitable evils of this system de- serves to be noticed, as it formed the principal subject of the delibe- rations of the great Harrisburg Convention of 1827, composed of delegates from all the States north of the Potomac, as well as from Kentucky and Ohio: this is, the evasion of duties by smuggling and false invoices. These are certainly great public evils. If the institutions of society are to be maintained, it is absolutely neces- sary that those who derive security and protection from the Govern- ment should contribute to its support. Any fraud or evasion of the taxes imposed for this purpose, by any person, is an actual wrong committed upon all other individuals in the community, which justice requires should be severely punished. But the experience of every nation, which has ever supported government by indirect taxation, amply establishes the fact, that it is impossible to prohibit, by laws, the importatio~n of articles of taste and luxury,and equally impossible to levy rates of duty upon importation, of an inordinate amount in pro- portion to the value of the article taxed. The tobacco and spirit du- ties in England may be referred to, which have not only demoralized so large a portion of the population on her coasts, but have subjected her treasury to its vast expenditure for the preventive service, estab- lished for the detection and punishment of smuggling. In point of fact, such is the constitution of man, that any thing in the nature of a prohibition increases the zest of enjoyment. Laws enacted with that view create a distinction so flattering to human vanity, that no attainable expense will be spared in its gratification. It is not ne- cessary to go abroad for instances. During the late war, a state of actual hostilities with Canada could not prevent extensive importa- tions of goods from that quarter. The only effectual remedy for smuggling, and impositions in the collection of the revenue, is to avoid fixing the rates of duty in a manner that will shock the sense of justice in the community, and take away the desire which every individual would otherwise entertain, of making his neighbour contribute his fair proportion for the support of the public estab- lishments. The cotton-growing States have invariably opposed with great zeal and earnestness every measure which has been introduced into Congress since 1816, for the purpose of increasing the duties upon manufactures of that article. It is by no means the lightest objec- tion to the system, that it has created and fostered feelings which [April, 4S Cotton. ought not to exist between the different sections of the Union, whose real interests in the ~,reat scale of mutual necessities are so intimately interwoven. The citizens of the South have contended with great force of argument, that, as their prosperity mainly depended upon the demand for the raw material in foreign markets, the policy which proposed to grant the monopoly of the home supply to the manufac- turers of this country not only subjected them to an unjust tax to the extent of their consumption, but must inevitably result in creating countervailing embarrassments abroad. Whatever injurious effects the southern States may have either experienced or fancied from the operation of this cruel system, it is certain, that its consequences upon them have been greatly more disastrous upon the manufacturing States. During its operation the manufacturers of cotton have no doubt greatly increasedbut the other industrial interests of the country have not been stationary. The importance of the cotton manufacture has been so constantly placed before the public, from the continual agitation of the tariff question by speculators and poli- ticians, that the value of other branches of manufacture, which have been carried on in silence and obscurity, has been entirely over- looked. It may be fairly estimated, that about one-third of the manufactories of cotton, in the United States, are within the State of Massachusettsthe whole amount in the country being now con- ~idered to be about two millions of spindles. A most creditable and satisfactory statistical document has been lately placed before the Legislature of that State by the Secretary of the Commonwealth, and has just fallen into our hands, which shows, from official returns furnished by the proper authorities of each town, the actual value of all manufactured articles produced within its ter- ritory during the year ending on the first of April, 1837. It appears from this authentic statement, that the aggregate value of the cotton goods manufactured in the State during that period, was about thir- teen millions of dollars, while the value of the boots and shoes manufactured within the same space of time was upwards of fourteen millions and a half. The cotton manufacture employed not quite twenty thousand personswhile the manufacture of boots and shoes employed near forty thousand. And yet how much has been said of the vast importance of the former to the State of Massachusetts and how little has been said or known, to the public at large, with re- gard to the latter! The value of the products of the bleaching and printing of cotton cloths is separately stated, and amounts to upwards of four millions. And how many are there of the most extensive and profitable branches of industry essentially important to the comfort, and even existence, of vast numbers of our population, of which little is known 1838.] Injurious tendency of Protective Duties. 49 to the public, in consequence of their not being carried on at great establishments which attract general attention. We furnish this comparison between the value of these articles produced in the most manufacturing section of the United States, in proportion to its population, for the purpose of showing, that the in- crease in the cotton manufactures cannot with any fairness be attri- buted to the plausible but cruel protection they have received from the monopoly legislation of Congress. Had this unfortunate interference not periodically intervened, they would probably have reached a far higher degree of prosperity. It is certain that most intelligent man- ufacturers consider the reduction of duties provided by the Act of 2d March, 1833, to have been a measure of great and substantial benefit to them. It is not necessary for us to express any opinion upon the question whether the reduction might not have taken effect with more rapidity, to equal or greater advantage. The simple fact, that our manufactures for the last dozen or fifteen years have been able to compete successfully with the English in many foreign markets, shows conclusively the mockery of imposing high duties for the pur- pose of protecting their products. They obtain the raw material cheaperare free from burdensome excise dutiesand use princi- pally a moving power of much less cost than those of England. Any slight difference in the price of wages is of comparatively little im- portance, in operations carried on in such great proportion, and to such great extent, without human aid. Capitalists in England are indeed contented with a much smaller rate of profit than those of our own country. But when the business is placed upon a footing of se- curity and stability, as it has been by the Act of 1833, this disparity xnust gradually lessen. We are ardently anxious to advance the permanent interests of the cotton manufacturers in common with those of all other pursuits of industry. But we are solemnly convinced that they can only be effec- tually promoted by abstaining from all legislative disturbances, which have heretofore so often been the occasion, as we have seen, of the most melancholy results. We have avoided by design all remarks upon the constitutionality of imposing duties upon the importation of foreign manufactures for the purpose of affording protection to our own citizens in the pro- duction of similar articlesnot from unwillingness to enter upon the subject, but because we consider it as now a settled question, beyond any serious danger of revival; as it would also be a waste of time to discuss an abstract doctrine, while we possess so many conclusive proofs within our own experience, that all monopolies or any tendency towards themare not less injurious, in the irresis- tible course of events, to those in favor of whom they may be grant.. ed, than to those on whom they are imposed. VOL. II. NO. V. D 50 April, PENT U C Ii E T. BY 3. G. WHITTIER. [The village of Haverhill, on the Merrimack, called by the Indians Pentucket, was~ for nearly seventy year a fro tier town, and dunn,, thirty years, endured all the hor- rors of savage warfare. In the yea I~O8, a combined body of French and Indians, under the command of De Challions, and Hertel de Rouville, the infamous and bloody sacker of Deerfiold; made an attack upon the village, which at that time contained only thirty dwellin~ houses. Sixteen of the villagers were massacred? and a still larger number made prisoners. About thirty of the enemy also fell, an~ among them, Hertel de Rouville. The minister of the place, Rev. B. Rolfe was. killed by a shot through his own door.] How sweetly on the wood-girt town, The mellow light of sunset shone! Each small, bright lake, whose waters still Mirror the forest and the hill, Reflected from its waveless breast The beauty of a cloudless west, Glorious as if a glimpse were given Within the western gates of Heaven, Left, by the spirit of the star Of sunsets holy hour, ajar! Beside the rivers tranquil flood The dark and low-walled dwellings stood Where many a rood of open land Stretched up and down on either hand, With corn-leaves waving freshly green The thick and blackened stumps between ~ Behind, unbroken,. deep and dread, The wild, untra~elled forest spread, Back to those mountains, white and cold,. Of which the Indian trapper told, Upon whose summits never yet Was mortal foot in safety set. Quiet and calm, without a fear Of danger darkly lurking near, The weary laborer left his plough. The milk-maid carolled by her cow From cottage door and household hearth Rose songs of praise, or tones of mirth. At length the murmur died away And silence on that village lay

50 April, PENT U C Ii E T. BY 3. G. WHITTIER. [The village of Haverhill, on the Merrimack, called by the Indians Pentucket, was~ for nearly seventy year a fro tier town, and dunn,, thirty years, endured all the hor- rors of savage warfare. In the yea I~O8, a combined body of French and Indians, under the command of De Challions, and Hertel de Rouville, the infamous and bloody sacker of Deerfiold; made an attack upon the village, which at that time contained only thirty dwellin~ houses. Sixteen of the villagers were massacred? and a still larger number made prisoners. About thirty of the enemy also fell, an~ among them, Hertel de Rouville. The minister of the place, Rev. B. Rolfe was. killed by a shot through his own door.] How sweetly on the wood-girt town, The mellow light of sunset shone! Each small, bright lake, whose waters still Mirror the forest and the hill, Reflected from its waveless breast The beauty of a cloudless west, Glorious as if a glimpse were given Within the western gates of Heaven, Left, by the spirit of the star Of sunsets holy hour, ajar! Beside the rivers tranquil flood The dark and low-walled dwellings stood Where many a rood of open land Stretched up and down on either hand, With corn-leaves waving freshly green The thick and blackened stumps between ~ Behind, unbroken,. deep and dread, The wild, untra~elled forest spread, Back to those mountains, white and cold,. Of which the Indian trapper told, Upon whose summits never yet Was mortal foot in safety set. Quiet and calm, without a fear Of danger darkly lurking near, The weary laborer left his plough. The milk-maid carolled by her cow From cottage door and household hearth Rose songs of praise, or tones of mirth. At length the murmur died away And silence on that village lay 1838.j Pentucket. 61 So slept Pompeii, tower and hall, Ere the quick earthquake swallowed all, Undreaming of th~ fiery fate Which made its dwellings desolate! Hours passed away. By moonlight sped The Merrimack along his bed. Bathed ia the pallid lustre, stood Dark cottage-wall and rock and wood, Silent, beneath that tranquil beam, As the hushed grouping of a dream. Yet on the still air crept a sound No bark of foxno rabbits bound No stir of wingsnor waters flowing Nor leaves in midnight breezes blowing. Was that the tread of many feet, Which downward from the hill side beat? What forms were those which darkly stood Just on the margin of the wood Charred tree-stumps in the moonlight dim? Or paling rude, or leafless limb ?. Nothrough the trees fierce eye-balls glowed, Dark human forms in moonshine showed, Wild from their native wilderness, With painted limbs and battle-dress! A yell, the dead might wake to hear, Swelled on the night air, far and clear Then smote the Indian tomahawk, On crashing door and shattering lock Then rang the rifle-shotand then The shrill death-scream of stricken men; Sunk the red axe in womans brain, And childhoods cry arose in vain. Bursting through roof and window came, Red, fast and fierce, the kindled flame, And blended fire and moonlight glared Over dead corse and weapons bared. The morning sun looked brightly through The river willows, ~vet with dew. No sound of combat filled the air, No shout was heard,nor gun-shot there; Yet still the thick and sullen smoke From smouldering ruins slowly broke, 52 The Captive Bird. [April, And on the green sward many a stain, And, here and there, the mangled slain, Told how that midnight bolt had sped, Pentucket, on thy fatal head! Even now, the villager can tell Where Rolfe beside his hearth-stone fell; Still show the door of wasting oak, Through which the fatal death-shot broke; And point the curious stranger where De Rouvilles corse lay grim and bare, Whose hideous head, in death still feared, Bore not a trace of hair or heard, And still, within the churchyard ground, Heaves darkly up the ancient mound, Beneath whose grass-grown surface lies Each victim of that sacrifice! TIlE CAPTIVE BIRD- BY DIRS. c. B. DAPONTE. Go, captive bird, thy wings are free, To flutter in the morning air; Go, drink the dew, from flower and tree, And sing thy song of freedom there. Go, skim the clear and rapid stream, Bird of the dark and brilliant eye; Go, float with clouds whose orient beam Gilds the fair face of earth and sky. Away! the breath of spring is near, The woods are crowned with rosy light; Ah, could I now retain thee here, From scenes so lovely, skies so bright ~ My lips are prest upon thy wing, My hand is on thy little heart, I catch thy last notes as they ring, In thrilling sweetness, ere we part. Forth on thy way !and pour thy strain Where fields are green, and waters flow; Mine own sweet bird, thy voice again Shall never speak a captives woe!

52 The Captive Bird. [April, And on the green sward many a stain, And, here and there, the mangled slain, Told how that midnight bolt had sped, Pentucket, on thy fatal head! Even now, the villager can tell Where Rolfe beside his hearth-stone fell; Still show the door of wasting oak, Through which the fatal death-shot broke; And point the curious stranger where De Rouvilles corse lay grim and bare, Whose hideous head, in death still feared, Bore not a trace of hair or heard, And still, within the churchyard ground, Heaves darkly up the ancient mound, Beneath whose grass-grown surface lies Each victim of that sacrifice! TIlE CAPTIVE BIRD- BY DIRS. c. B. DAPONTE. Go, captive bird, thy wings are free, To flutter in the morning air; Go, drink the dew, from flower and tree, And sing thy song of freedom there. Go, skim the clear and rapid stream, Bird of the dark and brilliant eye; Go, float with clouds whose orient beam Gilds the fair face of earth and sky. Away! the breath of spring is near, The woods are crowned with rosy light; Ah, could I now retain thee here, From scenes so lovely, skies so bright ~ My lips are prest upon thy wing, My hand is on thy little heart, I catch thy last notes as they ring, In thrilling sweetness, ere we part. Forth on thy way !and pour thy strain Where fields are green, and waters flow; Mine own sweet bird, thy voice again Shall never speak a captives woe! 1838.] RECOLLECTIONS OF EASTERN TRAVEL. BY 3. 5. DUCKINGHAM, ESQ., No. II. ANCIENT ELIETHEA5.TUESDAY~ NOV. 30. WE left Esneh with the earliest dawn of light, and, with a faint but steady air of wind, continued to make some progress against the stream of the Nile. I had passed the three last days so happily in the society of Mr. Burckhardt, that I felt its loss as severely as though our intimacy had been of much longer duration, and it had the effect of rendering me really melancholy throughout the day; nor was it a morbid sensibility, though perhaps so short an acquaintance seems insufficient to have inspired it; yet the distance from every other friend, at which we both were placed, and the peculiarity of our place of meeting, were of themselves strong auxiliaries to this state of feeling, independently of the very high attraction which suck talents, manners, and sentiments as his naturally presented. The appearance of the rivers banks offered nothing remarkable, until our arrival opposite to El Bessaliali, where observing a firm pier of masonry to project into the stream, I was induced to land there, in order to ascertain if there were any appearances of former grandeur in the neighbourhood. This pier, instead of being an em- bankment of the soil, as that at Ptolemais, Luxor, and Latopolis, has its end only connected with the shore, from which it stands out into the river, in the form of a jettyhaving a flight of steps on the southern side, descending to the water of the Nile ; and the whole structure is well and firmly built. On the shore itself are the re mains of a lar~e canal, with high banks on either side, the channel of which is filled during the annual inundation; but at the moment when we saw it, the waters having retired, it was cultivated with wheat. This pier then answered the purpose of arresting the rapidity of the current, and turning it into this canalthe only Egyptian work of the kind I had yet seenand, excepting at its extreme point~ it was but little injured by time. From hence, also, we saw a pyramid, of worse construction, and small size, a little farther to the southward, and at the distance of about two miles from the river, built in the sands. Crossing to the other side of the Nile, we passed the island which here divides the stream; and as the wind had entirely died away, we towed our boat

1838.] RECOLLECTIONS OF EASTERN TRAVEL. BY 3. 5. DUCKINGHAM, ESQ., No. II. ANCIENT ELIETHEA5.TUESDAY~ NOV. 30. WE left Esneh with the earliest dawn of light, and, with a faint but steady air of wind, continued to make some progress against the stream of the Nile. I had passed the three last days so happily in the society of Mr. Burckhardt, that I felt its loss as severely as though our intimacy had been of much longer duration, and it had the effect of rendering me really melancholy throughout the day; nor was it a morbid sensibility, though perhaps so short an acquaintance seems insufficient to have inspired it; yet the distance from every other friend, at which we both were placed, and the peculiarity of our place of meeting, were of themselves strong auxiliaries to this state of feeling, independently of the very high attraction which suck talents, manners, and sentiments as his naturally presented. The appearance of the rivers banks offered nothing remarkable, until our arrival opposite to El Bessaliali, where observing a firm pier of masonry to project into the stream, I was induced to land there, in order to ascertain if there were any appearances of former grandeur in the neighbourhood. This pier, instead of being an em- bankment of the soil, as that at Ptolemais, Luxor, and Latopolis, has its end only connected with the shore, from which it stands out into the river, in the form of a jettyhaving a flight of steps on the southern side, descending to the water of the Nile ; and the whole structure is well and firmly built. On the shore itself are the re mains of a lar~e canal, with high banks on either side, the channel of which is filled during the annual inundation; but at the moment when we saw it, the waters having retired, it was cultivated with wheat. This pier then answered the purpose of arresting the rapidity of the current, and turning it into this canalthe only Egyptian work of the kind I had yet seenand, excepting at its extreme point~ it was but little injured by time. From hence, also, we saw a pyramid, of worse construction, and small size, a little farther to the southward, and at the distance of about two miles from the river, built in the sands. Crossing to the other side of the Nile, we passed the island which here divides the stream; and as the wind had entirely died away, we towed our boat 64 Vo~/ctge on the Nile.No. II. [Aprit along the shoreunder a high projecti:g mountain, which advances close to the waters edge, and at the foot of which is built the vii- lage of Gurra. The hill itself presents a singular appearance, from its being covered with masses of stone, apparently rent from it by some strong convulsion; and although the body of the mountain is perfectly calcareous, immense rocks of reddish granite are scat- tered over the village, under the shade of which many of the modern huts are completely hidden. A spot of cultivation follows,and con- nects it with the site of the ancient Elietheas, xvhere we arrived a little before sunset, allowing us just sufficient time to examine its ruins before it grew dark. There are no splendid remains here; all that is standing above ground being the portion of a sanctuary, and six columns of small sizethree with plain capitals and unorna- mented shafts, and three with lotus capitals, and their shafts covered with sculptured and painted figures. The presiding deity visible on the sanctuary, to whom offerings are made, is a fat sitting figure, with a head partaking both of the nature of the dog and of the crocodile; but the most remarkable circumstance is the remains of the ancient walls of the town, and the foundations of Egyptian (lwellin~s,all built of unb ~rut bricks. The walls themselves form a square, the area of which might be computed at two English miles round; they are from 15 to 2t~ feet high, and about four feet thick, with vacant entrances, like gates, but badly executed. Of the dwel- lings seen here, some of the foundations were of stone; some were ornamented with stone portals, inscribed with hieroglyphics; and, in two instances, we found whole dwellings built of that material; but small and inconvenient. It was evident, however, that the town was in general constructed of unbaked bricks, while the temples alone were durable and splendid: a fact which sufficiently accounts for the complete destruction of the private abodes in almost every instance, where the colossal strength of the public edifices has de- fied the ravages of time. Hence it is, that at Tentyra, at Thebes, and at Hermontis, nothing is to be seen but tombs and temples., while the ground is strewn with the meaner vestiges of private dwellings; and every inquiry we make relative to the civil institu- tions and manner of living among the ancient Egyptians, only strengthens the proof, that the kings and priests were tyrants, and that the people were miserable slaves. It is true, that one cannot but admire the perfection of their art,and the splendor of their gi- gantic works; but the feeling of resentment which a recollection of their despotism excites, leads the traveller to deplore the policy which drew the power of the few from the privations of the many; as well as to confess the justice of that destiny which has destroyed a giant empire whose glory was her shame. 1838.] 56 EDFOU, OR APOLLONOPOLtS MAGNADEc. 1. The mornings calm allowed me to make a second visit to the ruins, opposite to which we were moored for the night, and to see some tombs excavated in the mountains behind it, which were mere apertures in the rock, witho t order or ornament. From hence, however, the si e of the town of Elietheas could be seen to great advanta0e; and it appeared that within its walls was included a large level space, nearly resembling a military parade, between the eastern wall and the principal building; and while three sides were defended by this enclosure, the fourth was presented to the Nile, whose stream washed the foundations of its dwellings, which occupied a rising ground along its very bank. The whole of the buildings lay in ruins, and the level space was covered with sand, though evidei tly never built on. The walls themselves were, like the sloping masses before the temples at Thebes, of a pyramidal form; their bases being double the thickness of their summits, and although ~nstructed of unbaked bricks, they would be a sufficient defence against any thing short of artillery, even in their present state. Without the walls, in the plain to the north, are some remains of a gate-way, but in a state of great imperfection; and in the portico of the temple we found a small mutilated sphinx of black granite; its pedestal covered with inscriptions, and executed in a good style. Along the banks of the Nile, on which the city stood, are remains of brick foundations, and facings of the same material, resembling a quay; but now covered partly with the mud of the river, and in other places broken down by the rapid force of the descending stream. It still continued calm, but after the morning ablutions, prayers, pipes, and coffee, had all been gone throughand I had too often reason to complain of their tedious lengthwe towed along the eastern bank. The mountains continued to present the same broken appearance of outline, and to be covered with scattered calcareous masses. The sand islands in the centre of the stream became more frequent, and were every where crowded with multitudes of storks, vultures, and cranes. We had just obtained sight of the elevated temple of Apollonopo- us Magna, when some brick fragments on the eastern shore induced me to land again. It had been the site of some small town, now lost and forgotten; the heaps of pottery had been levelled and ploughed over, and a few stones only remained of some large build- ing that once ornamented this desolated scene. We continued slowly to approach Edfou, or Apollonopolis, whose temple towered above the surrounding scenes, in the most majestic and commanding attitude; and landing there at about three oclock, we walked to the town, at a dista. cc of nearly a mile from the river. Nothing can be conceived finer than the situation which was chosen for this settle- ment, as it completely overlooks the Nile, and the whole cultivated 50 Voyage on the Niie.No. ii [April, valley, to the opposite chain of the Arabian hills; and judging from the extent of the fragments widely scattered round it, it must have been once a city of high importance. We walked round the temple upon the top of the massive wall that encompasses itthe summit of which is now nearly level with the ground, so much have the ruins of Arab dwellings accumulated about it. From hence we discovered that the body of the temple is exactly similar in exterior plan to that of Isis, at Tentyrathe por- tico exceeding the nave in height and breadth in the same propor- tionthe torus and cornices being the samethe ornaments of the outer wall differing only in detail, and the sphinxs-heads, for carrying off the water from the temple, occu flying exactly the same situation. The addition, however, of the beautiful gate-way and court through which the temple is approached, gives it a greater grandeur and magnificence in design than the temple of Isis, at Ten- tyra; and the variety of its beautiful capitals, and the high finish of its sculpture, make it equal in richness; so that it may be pro- nounced, upon the whole, to be a much finer building. Its present crowded state, from being filled with the hovels of mud which dis- figure it, and the whole of its sanctuary and inner chambers being inaccessible from rubbish, detract much from its present beauty; though, when perfect, it must have been one of the noblest buildings Egypt could boast of, inferior in size to that at Karnac only, and to none in the perfection of its sculpture, if Tentyra be excepted. Completing the circuit of the whole edifice, we entered the outer gate-way, which faces northward, and is enclosed between two giant masses of masonry, like those which precede all the entrances at Thebesbut higher in proportion to their breadthhaving no cor- nice, and all its angles being covered with a rich and noble torus. The ornaments of the door of entrance present nothing remarka- ble; it is surmounted by the winged globe in the usual style, and from its portals project two blocks against which statues might have rested, as they frequently occupy the same situation, at Karnac, Luxor, and the Memnonium. The moles themselves are covered with sculptured figures of an enormous size. At the bottom, on each side, a colossal bust is seenthe lower part of the figure being buried in the soil. He bears a destroying instrument in his right hand, and with his uplifted arm is about to inflict vengeance on a supplicating groupintended, perhaps, to impress the worshipers, even before they had passed the sacred threshold, with the severity of the power that guarded it, and the omnipotence of the priest- hood to punish and revenge. Above these are two ranges of figures, in smaller proportion, depicting offerings to that all-powerful body, and teaching, apparently, the first precepts of their mysterious reli- gion. Our entrance through the gate-way was considerably ob- structed by the huts crowded round it. We were obliged to wait 1838.] lZdfau, or Apollonopolis Magna. 57 until the women were removed, or had concealed themselves, in all the dwellings through which we had to pass; and there were seve- ral distinct families residing underneath this single gate-way alone. Through small and apparently private doors, we ascended the inte- rior of those pyramidal mounds that guarded the entrance, by stone flights of stairs, which led to various apartments lighted by small windows that were scarcely visible from without, and the whole was terminated above by a platform or terrace. These, therefore, probably formed the dwellings of the Egyptian priests; and the summit served as an airy promenade, from which the view is cer- tainly delightful. In front of these moles are foui~ long niches, placed at equal distances, and evidently intended for the reception of statues or obelisks; they are at present filled with hieroglyphic inscriptions, commemorating, perhaps, the beneficence of the giver, as the repeated description of such offerings among the hiero- glyphical groups, prove the practice of the presentation of such or- naments by devotees to have been frequent. This entrance leads to a large square court, surrounded with a colonnade of beautiful columns, in the capitals of which great rich- ness is displayed; the centre of this court, however, as well as the intervals between the columns themselves, is so completely filled with modern huts, that I could neither take dimensions, nor copy the hieroglyphic figures. A rich frieze and cornice surrounds the colonnade, of the same design as that which decorates the temple, and gives an air of great magnificence to the whole. We entered the portico, whose very front range of pillars are buried nearly up to the capitals, and at the third roxv, the rubbish approaches within a foot of the roof; an evil that is every where in- creasing; for when any of these mud built huts on its summit are deserted by the inhabitants, or fall to ruins, their debris are thrown down into this court through the openings of the roof above, to clear the space for the foundation of other dwellings in their stead. Of the few capitals which are still visible above the heaps, no lan- guage can adequately describe the beauty; every alternate pair differ in their design; yet differ only to become more exquisitely rich ; and to prove that variety, when skilfully indulged, is neither destructive of harmony nor incompatible with the purest taste. The ornaments of the wall which communicated with the body of the temple, could scarcely be perceived, from the lateness of the hour; and all the inner apartments, even to the sanctuary, were per- fectly inaccessible; a circumstance which every visiter must regret, since the grandeur of the plan and the superior finish of all the ex- ternal decorations, would have induced one to expect a high dis- play of interior beauty. Among the hieroglyphical figures visible on those l)arts of the outer walls not yet buried, were winged serpents, and the bodies of [April, 58 Voyage on the Nile~No. II. that animal furnished with human extremities and walking erect; the heads of birds and beasts represented in detached figuresbee- tles, grasshoppers, hogs, (the only representation I had yet seen of this unclean animalfor so it was deemed both by Egyptians and Jews,) small human figures in great varieties of attitude, and the unveiled emblem of Priapus, more than once repeated. On the frieze of the sanctuary gate, beneath the portico, a faint light thrown in between the central columns enabled us to perceive a long pro- cession of Egyptian divinities, about to ascend a flight of steps, at the top of which an eye is looking down upon them, and beyond these are others who have passed it, as well as a small boat,from the prow of which one of them is just stepping out. All those who have succeeded in the passage of this obstacle, have their heads surmounted by stars, or the moon, with small inscriptions over each. Does this represent the passage through death to immortality, or to the obtaining divine honors and being numbered amon~ the constellations? Amidst those who are advancing, are figures of every kind, each with its own inscription; but it is re- markable that the ever-honored Priapus occupies the centre of them, preceded by an Ibis-beaded figure in a sitting posture. The characteristics of his divinity are triumphantly displayed; and he appears to be every where the principal personage of the group. May not this represent the various stages of life, in mans progress from the womb to the grave; and the procreating duties of his ma- turity, or middle age, be designated by the abundant flail of this life- renewing god? It would be interestin~ in the extreme to trace connections so full of allusions, as those labored productions must have been; but night was advancing; the village dogs were noisy and abundant; and our boat was some distance off; considerations which all combined to hasten our departureand we did not even then reach her until a very late hour. ON TIlE NILEDEC., 2. To-day was one of the most painful and uninteresting periods I had yet passed since our embarkation. I awoke before day-light, with a pain so violent and excruciating in my right eye, as to be iu- capable of op~ning it, and it continued through the day with such increasing force as almo~ t to induce an apprehension of the loss of that organ. Of the cause of so sudden an a11ection, I was entirely ignorant, and knew not what p~ rticularly to ascribe it to. Indeed it was impossibie to be more cautious and temperate than I had been; and from exposure to night air I bad not before suffered, though the dews are more abundant in Lower Egypt, than here. I was in- duced therefore to suppo e that I had received the opthah~ilc infec- tion from my friend Mr. Burckhardt; admitting at the same time the pre-disposition of my system, from other local causes of climate, 1~38. I Quarries of Gebel Silsilis. 50 food, air, & c. Since the removal of those feverish symptoms which followed my excursion to the temple at Thebes, I had suf~ fered considerably from dysentery; and this serious addition to an evil already sufficiently great, began to discourage my perseverance, more particularly when I remembered my opthalmic sufferings in the early part of the present year, and considered that every step re- moved me still farther from medical aid and auxiliary comforts. Willing, however, to think more maturely upon a step I might afterwards regret, and retaining a irresistible desire to visit the Nubian Frontier, we made sail at sun-rise, and passed through the narrow valley of cultivation which follows Edfou, having scarcely any other relief to the scenery of gray hills which approached the water on each side, except occasional tombs of holy sheiks, elevated on the most broken summits of the mountains; crowded sand islands in the middle of the stream, and the appearances of ruined villages on the banks of the river. One of these on the left, appeared to have been of the Saracenic age, from the walls and circular towers seen at intervals, which were built of unburnt bricks. The valley still grew narrower, and cultivation less and less until we reached Hannam, where we brought up at sun-set, by mooring our boat to the bank. QJJARRIE5 OF GEBEL SILsILIs.DEc. 3. The morning brought me but a slight alleviation of my pain, yet as we were near the mountains of free-stone, from which all the ma- terials of Egyptian temples had been drawn, I was desirous of vi- siting them, in order to observe the mode by which such immense blocks were separated from the rock, and conveyed to the water, for transport doxvn the Nile4f any traces remained to assist such a discovery. On approaching the strait formed by those opposite hills, the channel of the river becomes considerably narrower, so as to be not more than a long pistol shot across in some parts. We landed on the eastern side, where the quarries appear to have been excavated most extensively, and ascended to their summit. The whole of this stone is sand-stone, of a ne grain and equal texture, of a light yel- lowish colour, and capable of yielding masses of any size, free from vein or blemishan advantage of the highest kind in the construc- tion of such colossal piles as those which Egyptian grandeur has left in the monuments of her skill, her riches, and her power. I could see nothing like the separation of shapeless rocks by violence; every part was positively hewn in perpendicular and horizontal lines, and retained the mark of a similar instrument to that by which stones with us are shaped for building, after having been brought in rough masses from the quarry; so that the labour of procuring the material must have been equal at least to that of its combination in the edifice. In some places there are the appearances of sloped 430 royage ontiw Nile.No. II. [April, ways or inclined planes, by which those blocks, when hewn, de- .cended to the waters edge, and were there probably loaded on rafts, during the spring and summer months, to be floated by the waters of the inundation, and thus conveyed to their ultimate destination. The few tombs and caverns we saw on this side of the Nile, offering nothing of peculiar interest beyond the labour of the excavations, we crossed to the opposite bank, and at less than fifty yards from the waters edge approached a building hewn out of the solid rock, presenting a front of about eighty feet to the river, surmounted with a plain torus and cornice, and having five doors or entrances, between each of which were niches, with small statues, cut in an alto relievo of six or eight inches above the level. Over the central door, which is the narrowest, the winged globe, the beetle, and the grass- hopper are sculptured; and double perpendicular columns of in- scriptive characters ornamented the portals on each side. Within the doors are groups of religious personages, representing offerings of fruits and flowers, accompanied by the drooping lotus, the emblem of death, the decay of nature, or the sleep or suspension of anima- tion; from which, like that flower, the dead would again awake. These five entrances open into an arched gallery, extending the whole front of the building, and so disposed as to become an exten- sive sanctuary of death, and give entombment to a numerous family, or even race. Along the inner wall of this gallery, are arched spaces at intervals, resembling closed doors, on which are sculp- tured some expressive groups, resembling offerings and long pro- cessions. The inscriptions are sometimes in hieroglyphics, and sometimes in the current character; recording no doubt the outline history of the deceasedperhaps an eulogizing epitapha profession of devotion to the gods, or a moralizing exhortation to the living. In one of those compartments, towards the southern extremity, are some singularly grouped figures, which it would have been highly interesting to have made out, as their contour shows great freedom of design and beauty of execution; some of them appear to be either in the exercise of athletic games or dancing; but they have been wan- tonly mutilated by the hand of barbarism, or by the ascetic Chris- tians of early times, who have left no other mark of their having ever inhabited these temples of idolatry, except the disfiguration of their walls by a number of white crosses painted on them. At the northern extremity of this gallery, is a group of six full grown figures, standing, each differently habited, and in different at- titudes ; some having their arms crossedothers with one hand laid on its own bosom, while the other hangs down the side, as if appealing to the spectator, and pledging the sincerity of the heart for the truth of some maxim, relative to the cruelty of inex- orable death, who appears here to have triumphed over a whole family. On the robes of each figure are long inscriptions, proba 1838.1 Quarries of Gebel Silsilis. 61 bly descriptive of the characters, the period, and manner of their death, or their departing testaments to mankind. Near this, in a re- cess to the right, are three sitting figuresa male supported by two females, which may represent the still nearer connection of con- nubial bonds, and designate the wives, mutually happy in dividing the affections of a fond husband, carrying their fidelity to the grave, and unwilling to be divided even by the iron hand of the all-destroy- ing king. At the southern extremity of this excavation, is a corresponding group, occupying a similar recess; and in the centre of the whole, a narrow sculptured door leads to a chamber of about twelve feet square.; the situation of which gives every reason to suppose that the closed arched door-ways throughout the gallery, also lead into similar ones, as yet unopened. The obscurity of this chamber allows one barely to perceive that its walls are ornamented with painted figures. sculptured on stucco, like those in the tombs of the kings at Thebes; but they bave been too much injured to be correctly copied. On the terminating wall, opposite to the door-way, seven sculptured figures occupy all its length, and appear to represent a mother sit- ting in the centre, supported on each side by three of her children, who are standing in filial respect. Their attitudes and dresses also differ, and their sexes and ages can be well distinguished. It is a matter of extreme regret, however, that the blind bigotry of both Christian and Mahommedan zeal should have, in almost every instance, wreaked its vengeace so invariably on the features of the sculptured figures here, that all the expression they might once have possessed, is for ever lostthey are executed in that gravity of attitude which characterizes our religious sculpture of Henry the VII~s time, and struck me as bearing a resemblance to many figures I had seen in the sculptures of Westminster Abbey. Further to the south, on the same side, are other single tombs, the ceilings of which are painted in waving scrolls of azure, red, and yellow, the colours preserving all their original freshness. Here also are recesses in which figures are seated. In some instan.~ ces the females have their inner arms twined round the body of the male, and their outer arms lifted in a bent position, with the extended hand laid upon the bosom. Then follow others, sometimes with double and sometimes with single figures; the females repre- senting virgins; and the males, men who have died in celibacy all with sculptured ornaments, painting, and hieroglyphical tablets. Further on in the same direction, and close to the waters edge, is a fine double tomb unopened. The entrances show two shallow recesses of considerable height, supported on each side by fluted Egyptian columns, cut out of the solid rock, and surmounted by the torus, cornice, winged globes, and all the ornaments of the temple gates, to which it bears a near resemblance. The sides, the ceilings, and 62 Voyage on the Nile.No. IL [April, every intermediate part are covered with sculpture; and on the closed doors, are represented groups of priests and religious per- sonages, giving and receiving the offerings for the dead, including the fruits and flowers which were taken to the tombs by the surviving friends and the drooping lotus, whose emblematic death and re- storation, seemed always to be the prominent object, as if thus to encourage the hopes of future life, and teach the consoling doctrine of reanimated dust. These tombs resemble each other very closely, and were, per- haps, the last habitations of two attached friends. The one on the south, however, contains a very conspicuous figure of Priapus, which might have implied the devotion of the deceased to that god, who had blessed his connubial union with a numerous progeny; which from the days of the inspired Psalmist, who tells the father of a nu- merous race, that God shall strengthen him against a host of foes, and that he shall not be ashamed when he meets with his enemy on the gate, down to the present day, when every where in the east, the most honorable title by which a man can be addressed, is as the father of a large familyhas been invariably the boast of the living, and the silent pride of the dead. Around these tombs and porticoes are scattered fragments of other sepulchres, apparently destroyed, and some unfinished, with detached tablets of hieroglyphics upon the very quarries themselves, as if commemorating the purposes for which they were worked. We left this spot a little before noon, when the combined effect of a perfect calm, a burning sun, and the strong reflection of its rays from those yellow rocks, unrelieved by a single blade of verdure, were almost insupportable. Beyond the strait formed by the moun- tains here, the valley of cultivation widens with the stream, and some palm groves and villages are again seen, with grounds sown with wheat and maize, and some small spots of tobacco, grown by the Arab peasants, for their own consumption. On the eastern bank we saw two beautiful gazelles, who had come to quench their thirst in the rivers stream, but apparently alarmed at the very sound of our sailors tread, those timid and delicate creatures bounded off into the silence of the desert with the swiftness of an arrow. The calm continued until two hours past noon, when a light air from the westward succeeding, our boatmen were about to bring up, as the wind was foul, and they thought it was impossible to proceed~ They had not the most distant idea of any kind of sailing except with a wind abaft the beam, and I was reduced to the necessity of a sharp remedy before we could get the crew to make sail. The reach of the river runs here nearly N. E. and S. W.; so that we were close hauled and were obliged to keep upon the weather-shore, and steer close to the wind, luffing up frequently to catch the eddy current, which forms a counter stream in-shore. All these were operations, 1838.] Quarries of Gebel Silsilfg. 63 of which the Egyptian boatmen knew nothing; and I had, besides, to perform the task of remaining at the helm myself until sun-set, while my servant attended the sheet, to haul it taut and ease it off as the flaws of wind over the land occasionally headed or favoured us in our progress. On drawing toward the point of Koum Ombos, the course lay more southerly, and as we were again restored to plain sailing, I quitted the helm, and lay down to take a moments repose, giving the crew particular directions to take the broadest channel where the stream divides, and haul close round the point to the eastward, intending to bring up, off the site of Koum Ombos itself, so as to have an opportunity of examining its remains before our departure in the morning; but, as if their incompetency had not yet been suf- ficiently exhibited, they steered into the narrowest and most intricate channel of the two, assigning as the only reason that it appeared to be in the straitest direction; and, consequently, must be the right one. It was here, however, that our boat grounded more than fifty times in succession, and at length stuck so completely fast about mid channel, that for some time we despaired either of being able to proceed or to return. The moon fortunately favoured us with her light; but it was nearly day-break before we had surmounted all our difficulties, and got again in the broad stream of the river. Koum Ombos, or the ancient city Crocodilopolis could not then be examined, without considerably retarding our progress upward to the cataracts, and as I should pass it on my return down the Nile~ I reluctantly postponed my visit to it until then. SONNET. VIEW FROM THE CROW5 NEST, NEAR WEST POINT, NEW YORE. BEAUTY and grandeur mingle in the scene! Lo! to the north a living landscape lies, On which the gazer dwells with ravished eyes, Hills, plains and valleys, robed in cheerful green; Farms, gardens, hamlets; bustling market towns, Washed by the waters of old Hudsons stream, Dancing and sparkling in the suns bright beam, And ploughed by ships, barks, steamers. Southward frowns An alpine fortress with its ruined walls, Neath which spreads out a classic, rock-girt plain, Studded with banners, tents and martial halls Sacred to honor may they eer remain! On every side, in majesty severe, Huge mountains rise, and Gods own strength is here! B. F. B.

1838.] Quarries of Gebel Silsilfg. 63 of which the Egyptian boatmen knew nothing; and I had, besides, to perform the task of remaining at the helm myself until sun-set, while my servant attended the sheet, to haul it taut and ease it off as the flaws of wind over the land occasionally headed or favoured us in our progress. On drawing toward the point of Koum Ombos, the course lay more southerly, and as we were again restored to plain sailing, I quitted the helm, and lay down to take a moments repose, giving the crew particular directions to take the broadest channel where the stream divides, and haul close round the point to the eastward, intending to bring up, off the site of Koum Ombos itself, so as to have an opportunity of examining its remains before our departure in the morning; but, as if their incompetency had not yet been suf- ficiently exhibited, they steered into the narrowest and most intricate channel of the two, assigning as the only reason that it appeared to be in the straitest direction; and, consequently, must be the right one. It was here, however, that our boat grounded more than fifty times in succession, and at length stuck so completely fast about mid channel, that for some time we despaired either of being able to proceed or to return. The moon fortunately favoured us with her light; but it was nearly day-break before we had surmounted all our difficulties, and got again in the broad stream of the river. Koum Ombos, or the ancient city Crocodilopolis could not then be examined, without considerably retarding our progress upward to the cataracts, and as I should pass it on my return down the Nile~ I reluctantly postponed my visit to it until then. SONNET. VIEW FROM THE CROW5 NEST, NEAR WEST POINT, NEW YORE. BEAUTY and grandeur mingle in the scene! Lo! to the north a living landscape lies, On which the gazer dwells with ravished eyes, Hills, plains and valleys, robed in cheerful green; Farms, gardens, hamlets; bustling market towns, Washed by the waters of old Hudsons stream, Dancing and sparkling in the suns bright beam, And ploughed by ships, barks, steamers. Southward frowns An alpine fortress with its ruined walls, Neath which spreads out a classic, rock-girt plain, Studded with banners, tents and martial halls Sacred to honor may they eer remain! On every side, in majesty severe, Huge mountains rise, and Gods own strength is here! B. F. B. 64 [April, THE BENEFACTRESS. BY MRS. L. H. SIGOURNEY. Who asks if I remember thee ?or speak thy treasured name? Doth the frail rush forget the stream from whence its greenness came? Or the wild, lonely flower, that sprang in some rude, rocky dell, Forget the first, awakening smile, that on its bosom fell? Did Israels exiled sons, when far from Zions hill away, Forget the high and holy house, where first they learned to pray? Forget, around their temples wreck with alien step to rove, And on its dust and ashes gaze, with agonizing love? Remember thee !Remember thee !though many a year hath fled Since oer thy pillow damp and low the uprooted turf was spread, Yet still doth twilights musing hour thy graceful form restore, And morning breathe thy music-tone, like Memnons harp of yore. The simple cap that deckd thy brow, is still to memory dear, Her faithful echoes guard thy song that lulld my infant ear, The book from which my lisping tongue was by thy kindness taught, Gleams forth with all its letterd lines, still fresh with hues of thought. The flowers, the dear familiar flowers, that in thy garden grew, From which thy mantle-vase was filled, methinks, they breathe anew, Again, the whispering lily bends, and ope yon lips of rose, As if some message of thy love, they lingerd to disclose. Tis true, that more than fourscore years had bowd thy beauty low, And mingled with thy cup of life full many a dreg of woe, But yet thou hadst a higher charm than youthful bloom hath found, And balm within thy chastened heart, to heal anothers wound. Remember thee !Remember thee !though with the blest on high Thou hast a mansion of delight, unseen by mortal eye, Comes not thy wing to visit me, in the deep watch of night, When visions of unuttered things my slumber make so bright? I feel thy love within my breast, it nerves me strong and high, As cheers the wanderer on the deep the pale star in the sky, And when my weary spirit quails, or friendships smile is cold, Methinks, thine arm is round me thrown, as oft it was of old. Remember thee !Remember thee !while flows this purple tide, Ill keep thy precepts in my heart, thy pattern for my guide, And when lifes little journey ends, and light forsakes the eye, Come near me at my bed of pain, and teach me how to die!

64 [April, THE BENEFACTRESS. BY MRS. L. H. SIGOURNEY. Who asks if I remember thee ?or speak thy treasured name? Doth the frail rush forget the stream from whence its greenness came? Or the wild, lonely flower, that sprang in some rude, rocky dell, Forget the first, awakening smile, that on its bosom fell? Did Israels exiled sons, when far from Zions hill away, Forget the high and holy house, where first they learned to pray? Forget, around their temples wreck with alien step to rove, And on its dust and ashes gaze, with agonizing love? Remember thee !Remember thee !though many a year hath fled Since oer thy pillow damp and low the uprooted turf was spread, Yet still doth twilights musing hour thy graceful form restore, And morning breathe thy music-tone, like Memnons harp of yore. The simple cap that deckd thy brow, is still to memory dear, Her faithful echoes guard thy song that lulld my infant ear, The book from which my lisping tongue was by thy kindness taught, Gleams forth with all its letterd lines, still fresh with hues of thought. The flowers, the dear familiar flowers, that in thy garden grew, From which thy mantle-vase was filled, methinks, they breathe anew, Again, the whispering lily bends, and ope yon lips of rose, As if some message of thy love, they lingerd to disclose. Tis true, that more than fourscore years had bowd thy beauty low, And mingled with thy cup of life full many a dreg of woe, But yet thou hadst a higher charm than youthful bloom hath found, And balm within thy chastened heart, to heal anothers wound. Remember thee !Remember thee !though with the blest on high Thou hast a mansion of delight, unseen by mortal eye, Comes not thy wing to visit me, in the deep watch of night, When visions of unuttered things my slumber make so bright? I feel thy love within my breast, it nerves me strong and high, As cheers the wanderer on the deep the pale star in the sky, And when my weary spirit quails, or friendships smile is cold, Methinks, thine arm is round me thrown, as oft it was of old. Remember thee !Remember thee !while flows this purple tide, Ill keep thy precepts in my heart, thy pattern for my guide, And when lifes little journey ends, and light forsakes the eye, Come near me at my bed of pain, and teach me how to die! / A 2 x2 1538.] 66 POLITICAL PORTRAITS WITH PEN AND PENCIL. (No. V.) JOHN CALDWELL CALHOUN. No one who has ever seen the subject of the opposite sketch, on one of the occasions selected by the artist, the delivery of a speech in the Senate, will need the addition of the name, to recognize in it the distinguished Senator from South Carolina whose name heads this page. He has been selected for the fifth number of our Politi- cal Portrait Gallery, because he may, at the present moment, be con- sidered to occupy a position more prominent and remarkable, in various points of view, than any of the other public men now on the stage before the eye of the country. Mr. Calhoun is of Irish extraction, his father having been a na- dye of that land of warm hearts and excitable temperaments, hough he left it in early childhood. The family emigrated to Penn- sylvania in 1733, from which, after a number of years, they removed to Virginia, and thence finally, in 1756, to South Carolina. He was born in 178~2, being the fourth of five children, four sons and a daughter. His father, Patrick Calhoun, was distinguished for his daring spirit manifested in the command of a force of border rangers for the defence of the frontier settlements, against the Indian (espe- cially the Cherokee) hostilities. He married, in 1770, a young lady of the name of CaIdwell, of Charlotte county, Virginia. Mr. Calhoun is therefore now in his fifty-sixth year. He exhib- ited very extraordinary natural powers of mind at an early age, though his education before the age of eighteen was comparatively but little attended to, the three or four years preceding that age having been spent at home, in the invigorating pursuits of agricul- ture, and the sports of the field. lie had been taken home by his parents from school, on account of the injury which his health had sustained, from the severe application to which he had been ex- cited by a strong enthusiasm for historical reading, supported by a patient industry rarely exhibited by so young a mind. In 1800 his school education was resumed, and in 1802, two years after his first breaking ground upon the rudiments of the Latin grammar, he en- tered Yale College in the Junior class ;at the head of which his commanding natural powers enabled him to graduate, with the higW~ est honors. He spent a year and a half at the Litchfield law school; and, completing his legal studies in the office of Mr. Desaussure, in Charleston, was admitted to the bar in 1807, where he immediately took a high rank, on the circuit of his native district, Abbeville. VOL. Il. NO. V. E

1538.] 66 POLITICAL PORTRAITS WITH PEN AND PENCIL. (No. V.) JOHN CALDWELL CALHOUN. No one who has ever seen the subject of the opposite sketch, on one of the occasions selected by the artist, the delivery of a speech in the Senate, will need the addition of the name, to recognize in it the distinguished Senator from South Carolina whose name heads this page. He has been selected for the fifth number of our Politi- cal Portrait Gallery, because he may, at the present moment, be con- sidered to occupy a position more prominent and remarkable, in various points of view, than any of the other public men now on the stage before the eye of the country. Mr. Calhoun is of Irish extraction, his father having been a na- dye of that land of warm hearts and excitable temperaments, hough he left it in early childhood. The family emigrated to Penn- sylvania in 1733, from which, after a number of years, they removed to Virginia, and thence finally, in 1756, to South Carolina. He was born in 178~2, being the fourth of five children, four sons and a daughter. His father, Patrick Calhoun, was distinguished for his daring spirit manifested in the command of a force of border rangers for the defence of the frontier settlements, against the Indian (espe- cially the Cherokee) hostilities. He married, in 1770, a young lady of the name of CaIdwell, of Charlotte county, Virginia. Mr. Calhoun is therefore now in his fifty-sixth year. He exhib- ited very extraordinary natural powers of mind at an early age, though his education before the age of eighteen was comparatively but little attended to, the three or four years preceding that age having been spent at home, in the invigorating pursuits of agricul- ture, and the sports of the field. lie had been taken home by his parents from school, on account of the injury which his health had sustained, from the severe application to which he had been ex- cited by a strong enthusiasm for historical reading, supported by a patient industry rarely exhibited by so young a mind. In 1800 his school education was resumed, and in 1802, two years after his first breaking ground upon the rudiments of the Latin grammar, he en- tered Yale College in the Junior class ;at the head of which his commanding natural powers enabled him to graduate, with the higW~ est honors. He spent a year and a half at the Litchfield law school; and, completing his legal studies in the office of Mr. Desaussure, in Charleston, was admitted to the bar in 1807, where he immediately took a high rank, on the circuit of his native district, Abbeville. VOL. Il. NO. V. E John ~3. Calhoun. [ApriX From his earliest years, he was remarkable for an enthusiastic devotion to free principles, taking a prominent position on all occa- sions among the most ardent of the friends of human freedom, and the enemies of strong governmental powers. This seems to have been the general tone and bias of his mind from the earliest age. He entered Congress in 1811, having served two years in the Legislature of his native State. Since tbat period, he has been always on the front of the stage, deeply engaged, and playing a part second iiv prominence to none, in all the important public affairs of the times. A distinguished position was immediately conceded to him, by gene- ral consent, in the ranks of the Republican party, of which he was of course a member, being one of its most zealous and powerful cham- pions. He was placed second on the Committee on Foreign Affairs; of which he soon became chairman, on the retirement from Con- gress of Gen. Porter. This post was, it will be remembered, at that time the leadership of the Republican party in the House. His maiden speech was in defence of his report recommending a declara- tion of xvar, against a powerful attack by Jobn Randolph; it placed him at once in the first class of parliamentary orators. His extraor- dinary powers had full scope in that. position, which he maintained with all the enthusiasm, energy, and inexhaustible resources of genius, by which he was so remarkably characterized. His patri- otic services to the country at that trying time will always constitute a bright page in the record of his biography, which none of the feel- ings that may have arisen out of subsequent collisions of great par- ties and interests ought to be permitted to obscure. His course at this period presents one feature especially worthy of remark, as having some bearing, in the way of illustration, upon the just understanding of his subsequent political life, and his pre- sent actual position. He displayed a strikingly bold independence of party obligations, as they are more commonly estimated by pub- lic men prominently engaged in the campaigns of party warfare. Though a leading member of the Republican party, he did not hesi- tate to oppose it in several important measures, to which a distinct and decided party character had been given,in some instances successfully, and in others in vain ;witness his support of the Navy against a strong tide of party unpopularity,his opposition to the embargo, and the non-importation and non-intercourse acts, and to the great scheme of the Secretary of the Treasury (Mr. Dallas) of a non-specie-paying national bank, which was strongly urged as a party measure indispensable for the successful prosecu- tion of the war. No enemy can deny Mr. Calhoun the credit of having manifested on these occasions an independence, and high- minded sincerity of views, entitled at least to this passing notice. The next important measure with which he is associated was the charter of the Bank of the United States. He was at the head of Political Portraits.No. IT. he Committee on Currency, which reported the bill for that purpose. The fact is not to be disguised, nor the responsibility of the act cast if. But that responsibility has to be shared with the Republican party as a mass. It committed undoubtedly an egregious error. It was a grievous fault, and grievously hath Ca3sar answered it. The Republican party yielded reluctantly and hesitatingly indeedto a pressure of circumstances, arising out of the utterly deranged state of the currency, industry and business of the country, and the state of bank suspension of specie payments throughout the greater part of the Union, when the general subject of banking was very imperfectly understood, and the plausible ideas on which the system is founded, since demonstrated abundantly to the popular mind to be false, were in full sway and vogue,a pressure of cir- ~umstances upon a party in administration, in a severe crisis, and responsible from day to day for the practical course of affairs in the nation, of which it is scarcely possible for us of a later day to ap- preciate the full force. Mr. Calhoun now denies any material inconsistency, fairly and liberally regarded, between his present views and those on which he acted at that time. We shall have oc- casion to remark below upon the exact position, wIth respect to for- mer and present opinions, on the subject of a bank, entertained by Mr. Calhoun, on which all readers can form their own judgments on this question of consistency,if, indeed, it be deemed one of vital importance, after a lapse of upwards of twenty years, under cir- cumstances so materially changed, on a subject illumined in so great a degree within that period by the lights of experience and the pro- gress of the popular developement of opinion. One remark we feel bound, in historic justice, to makean admission which has in fact been made by Mr. Calhoun himself. The Republican party at that period was certainly not entirely free from the injurious effect of the long possession of power. A period of war, moreover, has necessarily a tendency to strengthen the governmental action. And in the state of exhaustion and general derangement succeeding the war, it was natural that the minds of the party in power should flow rather in a centripetal than a centrifugal direction, in relation to the powers and action of the Government. Such was undeniably the case. The purity of he good old Virginia doctrine of 98 was certainly considerably tarnished, by lon and trying exposure to temptation; and the charter of the Bank, the minimum principle in the Tariff of 1816, and some of the ideas and measures of the time on the subject of Internal Improvements, it cannot fairly be denied, planted seeds of mischief, from which rapidly grew consequences whose evil influence will yet be long and deeply felt, in the working of our system. We trust that the lesson of experience for which the Republican party has since had to pay so bitter a penalty, will never be forgotten,...-.as a warning to politicians and to parties, never John C. Gaihoun; ApriL to yield, ii any degree, an essential principle to any ap~nrent ur-~ gency of expediency. Without dwelling upon the other prominent points of Mr. Cal houns short but brilliant career in Congress, as a member of the House of Representatives, we pass to his appointment by Mr. Mon- roe to the head of the Department of War, in December, 1817, at the age of thirty-five. The adaptation of his mind to the practical business of administration was here subjected to a severe test. The state of disorder in which he found the complicated concerns of this Department, is well known, and may be best proved by the fact that it was overwhelmed with a burthenof not less than fifty millions of dollars of unsettled accounts, and all its intricate machinery to a great extent disorganized. The credit has always and universally been conceded to him, of having been one of the most active and efficient officers th t ever presided over any of our public departments. The arrears of unsettled accounts were speedily almost entirely extin- guished; the army was reorganized in an admirable manner, in point of discipline and eco omy, on its peace establishment; the West Point Academy was revived, and placed on a sound and effective foot- ing; a thorough system of fortifications, maritime and frontier, wa~ organized; and so perfect a sy tem of financial administration was brought by him into operation, as well in the disbursements of the Department as in the payment of pensions, that not a dollar of the immense amount of money which has been dis ursed by that De- partment (exceeding a hundred millions,) from that period to the pre- sent time, has been lost. Nor ought an allusion to be omitted, to the coast survey, originated under his administration; to the fine gallery of Indian portraits, of which he laid the foundation, now so interest- ing an ornament to the Department; as also to the numerous able state papers which emanated from his pen, especially those on Indian affairs, internal improvements, and the reduction of the army. He presided over that Department with the highest credit to him- self and utility to the country, till the close of Mr. Monroes second term, and his own election to the Vice-Presidency, in 18~2~. His name had been brought before the public as one of the candidates for the Presidency, but withdrawn. On the election of Mr. Adams over Gen. Jackson, by the House of Representatives, his own favorite, Mr. Crawford, being out of the field, he was naturally placed in the Op-. position, as well y the mode of that electionbei g by the House, in opposition to the manifest popular preferenceas by his natural party affinities, lie discharged the duties of that position with effi- ciency and dignity. lie has repeatedly made the remark since, that the leisure of that position, and its comparative retirement from active participation in party affairs, at the same time that it afforded a clear and close view of all the men and principles involved, had a decided effect in confirming his attachment to the State-Rights school of p0- 838.) Political Portraitg.No. V. itics; strengthening and extending his views farther than they had efore gone; and satisfyiag him that the federative principle was he true conservative principle of our system. That before that period his habits of thinking on the subject had been comparatively loose, though always based on the exposition of the Republican doctrine in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 98 and 99, and in Mr. Madisons imperishable Report. They were thence- forward reviewed, and more strongly defined and settled; and it was there that the conviction forced itself on his mind, that there were no other means practicable, to arrest the tendency of affairs towards a Federal centralization fatal to the rights of the States, than by a trial of the experimel t of the extent to which the power of the principle of State sovereignty might be carried, in a direct collision with the usurpations of the Federal Government. On Gen. Jacksons election by the people, in iS 8, he again came ~n as Vice-President. On the circumstances of the violent and em- ittered quarrel which so shortly thereafter ensued between him ant the President, we shall not here make any remark. They are fully before the public in the copious publications of correspondence and ~statements made at the time. Far from us be the ungracious task of revivin~ the remembrance of bygone occurrences of so disagreca- ble a nature on all sides, whatever may be the respective opinions of ndividuals or parties. The effect is all with which we have to do. Mr. Calhoun became placed in an attitude of deep hostility to the President and his principal friends, so strongly and severely per onal, as to extend ali ost of necessity even to political relations. His popularity was shattered (at least with the great body of the Demo- cratic party) even as the earthen vessel, in the collision. A morbid itterness of feeling towards Gen. Jacksons entire Administration seems to have arisen out of these personal relations. In a word, Mr. Calhoun soon found himself decidedly in the Opposition, and was seen to enact the part, and to exhibit the general bias of views and feelings, that seem natural to that relation. The affair of Nulli- fication soon succeeded; and Mr. Calhoun, in obedience to the call f his State, resigned his seat in the chair of the Senate, as Vice- President, to take his place in that body as a Senator from South Carolina, and as her espec~al champion before the country for the justification of the course which that State was then pursuing. Nullification is, then, the title by which the next chapter in Mr. Calhouns life is headeda word of dread and portentous sound in some portions of the Union, while in others it is regarded, at least by lar~.e parties, as the watchword of safety to the liberty, the real interests, and the permanent union, of our Confederacy. Mr. Cab lioun may he regarded as having been the master spirit of that affair whether for glory or the reverse all must determine according to air respective views. Nullification is now a bygone thing, and it [April 70 John C. Cathon can he looked at with perhaps a calmer and clearer eye, than it could be at a time when it was considered to be on the eve of deluging the country with the blood of civil war, and of rending asunder our thrice-blessed Union of the States. The Nullifiers have scarcely been fairly treated by public opinion at the North. Their motives, and the spirit in xvhich they acted, have, in our opinion, been too harshly judged, while the theoretic ground of constitutionality on which they planted themselves, has been comparatively little under- stood. Our notice of it must necessarily b very brief and slight. The high Tariff of 1828 went into operation, in despite of the dis- content and strenuous opposition of the South, or the cotton-growing: interest of the Union, by whom it was regarded with the utmost de- testation, as utterly unconstitutionalas contrary to the liberal princi- ples of political economy, as elucidated hy the modern developemeut of that science, which abhor all restriction and all legislative tam- pering with particular interestsand as an unjust and t annical sacrifice of their interests to the supposed interest of another section of the Union. The payment of the national debt was considered to remove the only possible shadow of legitimacy, on national grounds, which could-be claimed for it. Yet there appeared no hop of effecting a change in that career of restrictive policy, for the pro- tection of a sectional manufacturing interest, recommended to pop- ularity, with a majority of the people and of Congress, under the specious name of the American System, without the introduction of some new elements of action into the relations between the conflict- ing parties and opinions, which should shake that massive aseenden- cy of a majority, abusing its power over a minority; and should force the former hack to that respect for the violated rights and interests of the latter, for which all other means seemed insufficient. We wish simply to state the theory of Nullification, according to the ideas of those who should understand best their own intentions and grounds of action. In such cases, when a minority interest is driven by what it considers the oppression of a majority, to approach the ulti- ma ratio of revolution, it is not easy for other interests to enter fully into the exasperated feelings, and perhaps exaggerated views, on which the parties in question proceed, nor to judge fairly of the fact on which their justification must depend, namely, the extent of the op- pression under which they are sufferin~. In all collisions of interests, it is exceedingly difficult to be just, within even the narrowest limits, to our antagonist,while we claim the extension of the broadest libe- rality to ourselves. But now, when Nullification is hut a memory and ~n abstraction, the time has arrived, not only for justice, but for that generosity, which a truly enlightened and philosophical history should always extend to the motives of men and parties. The State of South Carolina, armed with the single principle of the State sove- reignty, undertook the combat with the giant of the protective poL~ 1838.] PoliUcal Portraitg.No. V. 71 icy, arrayed in the panoply of Federal power. The events of the contest, a short but severe one, it is not necessary to dwell upon. The State, in solemn convention assembled, planting itself on the reserved rights of its original soverei~nty, declared the law in ques- tion unconstitutional, and therefore essentially null and void, and decreed that it should not be executed within the limits of its State jurisdiction,in a word, it nullified, appealing to the two follow- ing passages from the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, long es- tablished as embodying the political creed of the Republican party, in justification of the constitutional around thus assumed by it: Resolved, That this ass~mhly doth explicitly and peremptorily declare, that it views the powers of the federal government as resultin~, from the compact to which the States are parties, as limited by the plain sense, and intention of the instrument constituting that compact, and as no farther valid than they are authorised by the grants enumerated in that compact; and that in case of a deliberate, palpable, and dangerous exercise of other powers not granted by the said compa the States, who are parties hereto, have the right, and are in duty bound, to interpose for arresting the progress of the evil, and for maintaining within their respective limits, the authorities, rights, end liberties appertaining to them. Virainia resolutions of 1 ~9S, by Mr. Madison. Resolved, That this commonwealth considers the federal union, upon the terms and for the purposes specified in the late compact, as conducive to the liberty and happiness of the sever-I States: That it does now unequivocally declare its attach- meat to the union, and to that compact, agreeably to its obvious and real intention, and will he among the last to seek its dissolution; That if those who administer the general government, be permitted to transgress the limits fixed by that compact, by a total disregard to the special deleaations of power therein contained, an annihila- tion of the State aovernments, and the erection upon their ruins of a general consoli- dated government, will be the inevitable consequence ; That the principle and con- struction contended for by sundry of the State legislatures. that the general govern- ment is the exclusive judge of the extent of the powers dele,,ated to it, stop nothin short of despotism, since the discretion of those who administer the goinrnment, and not the constitution, would be the measure of their powers; That the several States who formed that instrument, bein sovereign and independent, have the unquestionab right to judge of its infraction, and that a NtTLLIFIt3ATJON by those sovereignties of all nauthorised acts done under color of that instrument, is the rightful remedy. Ken- tucky resolutions of 1799. The original draft of which was made by Mr. Jefferson. Nor did the State confine itself to simple arguments, and paper de- clarations of opinion and intention. The Federal Executive being bound, by the most solemn sanctions of oath and duty, to enforce the execution of the Federal laws, even, if necessary, with the arm of physical power, the State placed itself in an attitude of military pre- paration, for the defence of its position; organized and armed its own physical force; and succeeded in arousing so determined and excited a state of feeling in its citizens, that we think there can be no doubt that it would have maintained its position to the last extremity,a position, manifestly, exceedingly difficult to be overcome, if thus maintained, by any physical power which could have been brought against it. The result all know. A compromise was agreed upon between the conflicting interests. A gradu 1 reduction of the protective duties, John C. Calhoun. [April, down to the scale of mere revenue taxation, was agreed upon, to be consummated in the year 1845~. Which party may be entitled to claim this compromise as a triumph, it would be very unprofitable to discuss. Whether the abandonment of the principle of protec- tion, on the one side, to be fully carried into effect at an appointed, and not far distant, period, was a submission on the part of the American-System interest,or whether the acquiescence in the tariff laws, the burthen of their oppression being reduced, and grad- ually lightened from year to year, was a submission on the part of the adverse interestis now of little consequence, though an issue appears to have been recently joined, on that point, between the two leading representatives of those interests in the arrangement of that compromise. The truth lies perhaps midway between the two extremes. There was mutual concessiontriumph and submission on both sides. On the one side, Nullification was in a very difficult and delicate position. A tremendous power of moral influence against it, from all the rest of the Union, hemmed it round, and pressed upon it with an irresstible, though impalpable, force. It was weak- ened also hy intestine division, the Union party in the State itself being very formidable,, and being rendered the more so from the in-~ temperate manner in which the excited pas ions of the time hurried the dominant party in the State to use their power. It was not sup- ported by the other Statcs of the South, and was certainly made to totter to its base by the ponderous blows dire ted upon it by General Jackson, acting as the Federal Chief Magistrate, supported as he was, on this question, by all the rest of the Union. Its position was becom- ing every day more and more untenable. It was in the wrong, as to the mode of remedy, and the, constitutional argument went against iL In such a situation, however resolute and gallant might be the spirit of the State, however strong in the self-concentration of her own indomitable will and energy, taking counsel of despair, it is manifest. that a compromise on grounds so honorable and equal,the principle contended for being recovered by her, in exchange for a temporary sacrifice of interest,afforded a very fortunate and providential es- cape from a position, which was fast becoming too hot to hold. While, on the other hand, the advocates of the protective policy were in a sit- uation not much more favorable, in a country in which Public Opinion is the one omnipotent ruling principle, against whose poxver it is vain for any intere~t long to contend. It was apparent that that policy had now reached a point at whi h its ascendency was to be main- tained only at the expen~ e of civil war; and for this the country was not prepared. Resting on a foundation of policy (ev~n as fr as the true interests of the manufacturers themselves were concerned) at the best, hollow and doubtfulat variance with the principles of liberty which animate the genius of our peopleplainly hostile to the spirit of the Constitution, at least as understood by the Repuhui~ 1~3S.] Political Portrctitg.No. V~ 73 can party of the Union, in possession of the Executive administra- tion of the governmentthat policy could not possibly have ven~ tured to the point of shedding a single drop of blood for its mainte~ nance. Its own friends could not have supported it to that extrem~ ity. Or if they had done so, it would have been the signal for its total annihilation. Its position was not more tenable than that of South Carolina, and there can be no doubt that the compromise tariff was the very best bargain that could possibly have been made in behalf of the American System. The truth is, that a civil war in this country, or a separation of the Union, is a thing in its nature impossible, at least in the present age,and we confidently trUst for all future ages. In violent colli- sions of interests, the excited passions of the contest may lead to the brink of the precipice, but they can never have poxver to urge the people, our sixteen or seventeen millions, the one step beyond, to the fatal plunge. The wrong opinion must then yield to the right, by an irresistible moral necessity; or if there is wrong on both sides, it must be abandoned by both, and a compromise must be the result. In such relations between principles and great interests, individuals are of much less consequence than they are often supposed. They act but as representatives and agents, obeying a compulsion before which they are, personally, but as straws before a tempest. That compromise could not but have taken place. It was a necessity, which could not but have worked itself out by some means or other,through one set of agents if not thron h another. We are rio friends of Nullification, thou h we endeavour, in all honesty and candor, to judge it liberally. There was much of wrong, mixed up with much of right, in it. It was right in the end pro- posed, the overthrow of the restrictive and protective system, which we consider as not less hostile to the spirit of the Constitution, than to the true principles of political science. It was wrong in the meansbecause all other means had not been exhaustedor, at the very least, wrong in the forms and theoretic grounds of procedure, as it was certainly too violent and intemperate in the mode. Under the Constitutioi and the compact it could not rightfully nullify,.. whether the circumstances were such as to justify a recourse to the ultim ratio of a revolutionary attitude, it is not for us to pro~ nounce. Nullification was revolution, in its spirit and its substance; and the misL ke committed was, in claiming to be within the forms of tbe Constitution, when in truth the State took up a position be~ yond and above them, on the ground of its original sovereignty. On the one side the Federal principle, and on the other the State~ Rights principle, the centripetal and centrifugal forces of our sys- tem, were both carried to extreme. But so it often is in great con- tests for reform,the reforming principle is frequently carried to excess, and intemperately administered, and that very excess and 74 Jo/tn C. Calhoun. [April, violence, though they distress and convulse at the time, and may even awaken opposition from those who really sympathize with the end proposed, do often seem to have been perhaps indispensable to success, or at least to its early achievement. Such are our leading views of Nullification; the expression of which may probably be unpopular with both parties. It has cer- tainly done some good,that is not to be denied. It was a little hur- ricane while it lasted, but has left a beneficial effect on the atmosphere. It can have no bad effect as an example to be imitated on slight oc- casions, whenever a State may differ in opinion with the Federal Government on a question of constitutionality, or of an obnoxious law, because the action of the Federal Government on this occasion was so energetic, as fully, at least, to vindicate its rightful authority, while its strong measures did not, and, from the nature of the prin- ciples involved, could not, extend in their operatioa beyond the statute book and the assertion of right. It is, however, very certain that the protective system ia our federal legislation will never raise its head agaia in this country,though whether it received a death wound from Nullification, or merely died a natural death, as is now asserted by its friends; in the ripeness of its allotted years, after ac~ complishing its object of establishing a national system of inanufac- ture, it is not necessary for us further to consider, being fully satis- fied of the fact and xvith it, and willing to give the past to oblivion and fix our thoughts and action upon the more important present and future. Mr. Calhoun continued decidedly and very energetically in Op- position to General Jacksons Administration, his opposition being marked by all the vehemence of his character, and the active vigor of his mind, acting under the stimulus of strongly excited personal feelings. Opposition to Executive usurpation was the quarter of the field, in the general, party contest that was raging, particularly occupied by him. This position placed him of course in alliance with the Federal party,-an alliance ~vhich certainly made it an exceeding- ly difficult matter to define the exact meaning and scope of the broad common name adopted by the Opposition party, that of Whigs. This was a false position, to be oc upied by Mr. Calhoun, and that name may be said to have been under a dark eclipse during that period. It was of course manifest that this Opposition was but a rope of sand, that no permanent union could subsist between elements so widely hostile in their fundamental principles; and that success would of necessity be the immediate signal for dissolution. There can be no question, that that success would have been the overthrow of the Republican, and the elevation to power of the Federal, party,ia which case, Mr. Calhouns section of the Opposition must, of course, have been absorbed into the greater body, and politically annihilated. The first fruits of the victory would have been a National Bank 1838.] Political Portraits.No. V. 75 with the whole train of manifold evil naturally flowing out of such an institution, and such a policy in control of the Federal govern- ment. It is due to justice here to give the version of Mr. Calhouns own friends, of his party position at this period, which is substan- tially as follows :Lt is true indeed, that thc Administration was an administration of the Democratic or Republican party, the party always identical, in the main, with the State-Rights, as contradistin- guished from the Federal, party. But he regarded it as corrupt in the character of its men and its measures, and as carrying the Executive power to a height of abuse which justified a temporary alliance even with the extreme Federal party, for the purpose of humbling and reforming it. The episode of Nullification, too, had a considerable influence in confirming a decided general antagonist relation between the Administration and Mr. Calhoun and his friends. On the bank question, the leading practical question involved in the contest of the parties, Mr. Calhoun considered the Administration experiment, of a State Bank Deposite System, as even a worse alternative, both in constitutionality and policy, than a National Bank, independently of the consideration of the excessive Executive power exercised in the mode of carrying that experiment into effect. Such would be, substantially, as fairly stated as in oUr power, the explanation of that anomalous political relation held by Mr. Calhoun towards the two main parties,in alliance with the extreme the farthest removed from his own abstract principles, to oppose and overthrow the ad- ministration elected and supported by the party to which his o rn school properly belonged, though the latter had committed the fault of pushing the State-Rights principle to an impracticable and revolu- tionary excess. I-us course through that period was looked upon in a different light by the friends and party of the Administration, and gave rise to very strong feelings, which were of course reflected from the press, in a manner necessarily calculated to widen and (leepen the existing breach. It was generally considered to be prompted solely by a reckless passion of ambition and vindictiveness, sacri- ficing all the ties and affinities of a common school of party princi- ples, to feelin~s and objects of a nature purely personalwith Rule or Ruin for its desperate motto. And it was looked upon with a sense of resentment and indignation the stronger from the full ap- preciation entertained of the high character of his intellectual pow- ers, as also of hL great personal influence. It is not for us to de- cide between these different constructions of his course at that period; the events are so recent as to be fresh within the memory of all; and the expression of our opinions on the subject would have but very little importance or influence. The truth would probably be found, by the dispassionate and candid searcher, at some inter- mediate pointthere being on the one side doubtless much injustice and misrepresentation, and on the other some considerable self-de1u~ John C. Calhoun, [April, sion, and strong bias, taking its origin and complexion from a very peculiar and embittered state of personal relations. Our views of the truth of that plausible charge against the late Administration, of an unconstitutional expansion of the Executive power, have been sufficiently explained in a former article (February Number, Art. I.) to render any further allusion to it in this place unnecessary. It is, of course, well known that Mr. Calhoun stands now in the altered relation of a supporter of the policy of the present Adminis- tration, which differs from the last in little else than in the change of the individual at its head. On this point, our remarks must be of necessity briefwith reference to our limits of space. Our view of it is simply this. Mr. Calhoun and the ultra State-Rights party were in a false position, in conducting such an opposition against tbe late Administration, as to constitute a support to the antagonist party, with which they had even less of natural affinity than the party ac- tually in power. If that opposition had been successful, it would have placed the Federal party at the head of affairs. rfhat state of things was unnatural, forced, and factitious, and, from the nature of princi- ples, and the laws which govern the combinations of political parties, could not permanently endure. As soon as the temporary causes of this alienation of parties naturally one and the same, and distin- guished in principles rather by a difference of degree than of kind~ should be removed, by the irresistible operation of time, they must come together again. No human power could long keep them apart. Between the powers of principles, and the affinities of great masses, individuals, even the greatest, are comparatively nothing. If they should place themselves between, with their personal motives and influence, in the hope of keeping them apart, they must be crushed into annihilation as between two great millstones. Nullification is now, in our day, as has been remarked above, a memory, and nothin~ more,a mere abstraction of theory, 50 far as all practical affairs of the present, or prospects of the future, are concerned. The charge of Executive usurpation has exhausted itself. It is evident that the Executive power, if heretofore swollen, by the influence of sufficient causes, up to the full level of its banks, though it never overflowed them, has now subsided naturally hack to its accustomed channel. The purity of the present Administration, in the school of Democratic and State-Rights principles, is too manifest on its very front,-the great issue between the parties is too plainly the same, essentially, as in the unforgotten contest between the same parties at the close of the last century,-to leave it possible for any considerable portion of the South to remain long in Opposition. Individuals may repre~ sent and precede masses, in these great combinations of parties, hut they do not lead thei . They are borne on by them,or rather all act by a common law, impelling all in the same direction. rfhe individual loses all his influencewhich can never in this country 1838.] Political Portraits.No. V. 77 have any other basis than the representation of a principle or a pop- ular sentimentand is trampled under foot, if he should attempt to cast himself in the w~ y of that mighty movement. We do not there- fore acquiesce in the claim which has been advanced triumphantly by Mr. Calhoun, in his recent encounters with the leaders of the Oppo- sition in the Senate, that his sudden interposition has rescued the Administration from destruction. Such an idea is founded on a mis- appreciation of the relative importance of men and principles. Even had he not been sincere in hi~ principles, but actuated solely by un- worthy selfish motives of calculation, (and we believe unhesitatingly in his profound and enthusiastic sincerity, which no one who knows the man could ever dream of doubtin~,) he could not choose but take that course. The last link of the causes which had bound him to the great error of his political life, his alliance with the Federal Op- position to Gen. Jacksons administration, was broken, having gradually become attenuated to the point of disappearance,and he could not have remained much longer in that artificial and highly forced relation. rfhe position had become utterly untenable, except at the necessary and immediate consequence of political annihilation. Is it not evident that the moral power which he now brings to the, support of the financial policy of the Administration, is derived from his representation of a great party and its principlesa representa~ tive character which must force that course upon him, by a moral necessity to oppose which would be equally destruction and dis- honor? This remark is not intended in any depreciating sense or spirit. Far from it. We admire Mr. Calhouns recent course in the high- est degree, and are fully conscious of the magnanimity of motive by which he has been actuated, of the moral influence which has accom- panied his accession to the support of the Administration on the Di- vorce question, and of the signal services rendered by his powerful arm in the giant struggle of the debate. But what are men, even the greatest and the highest, in comparison with principles and with millions ? The Opposition have clearly evinced their angry appreciation of the important bearing of Mr. Calhouns movement, by the strenuous efforts made by them, both in Congress and through the press, to counteract the effect of its moral influence, by destroying his char- acter as a statesman, by the cry of inconsistency, and even by the insinuation of corrupt motive. Without insulting Mr. Calhoun by admitting the latter to be entitled to any notice, after he has himself stamped it in the dust in scorn, we must make a passing allusion to the former. The inconsistency in principles charged upon Mr. Calhoun, relates mainly to his late opposition to, and present support of, the Admin- istration, and to his views on the subject of banking and currency 78 John C. Calhoun. [April, now maintained, as contrasted with those which placed him in the ranks of the supporters of the Bank of the United States, in its re- cent contest with the Government. Those of a more ancient date, as alleged, it is not worth while, on such an occasion as the pre- sent, to enter into. This charge Mr. Calhoun met and refuted, in a most masterly style, in his speech in reply to Mr. Clay on the tenth of March last. His defence was, as to its general outline, this. His relations to the two parties had been such as have been above described. Lie had acted on grounds independent of both; and though he had been placed by circumstances in the attitude of a temporary ally of the Federal party to reduce the overgrown Executive powerthe object of their common hostilityhe had nothing else in common with that party, and owed it no allegiance nor fidelity. It was universally known that there was even less natural affinity between his princi- ples and theirs, than between him and the common enemy; an dthey had no right nor reason to count upon his permanent alliance with them, after the causes on which he had acted had ceased to operate. The overthrow of the Administration, at the present crisis, would produce the consummation the most to be deprecated by his party, the accession of the Federal school of politics to power. The Ad- ministration being now practically reformed in the obnoxious points which had excited his opposition, and being now no longer an object of any serious apprehension from the extension of Executive power, his causes for hostility to it were correspondently modified. Thus much for his personal and party relations; and he could only be accused of inconsistency, and of going over, by those who looked upon the contest of the parties in no other light than as a struggle for power between the Ins and the Outs, and who were enraged by his refusal to continue, a volunteer ally, in their service to help them into power, when in truth such a course would have involved an utter faithlesness to the principles of his own beloved State-Rights party,principles, always cherished by him and pro- claimed above he din of the party cries of the day. On the latter question, relating to his opinions on the currency, Mr. Calhoun certainly annihilated the charge forever, in the powerful speech already alluded to, in reply to Mr. Clayby the indisputable evidence of the record. We must refer the reader to that speech, which every one, of both parties, ought to make it a duty to read in justice to Mr. Calhoun. After the publication of that speech no one can hereafter repeat the charge without incurring the liability, himself, of wilful calumny. It is sufficient for us here to state the exact ground assumed by him, and supported by the amplest evi- dence of extracts from his former speeches. His idea of the true constitutional doctrine of the powers of the Federal Government in relation to the currency, was this,that if the Government recognize 1838.] Political Portraits.No. V. 79 the paper of the banks as money, by receiving and circulating it, it is then bound to regulate the security and uniformity of what it con- ducts its fiscal action in, by any means necessary to that object, this power and duty being derived directly from the principle of uniformity of taxation, in the Constitution; and a national bank would be a more efficient, and not less constitutional mode than a league of State Banks. The latter is the worst of all the alternatives possible in the case, both from its effect on the currency, and from the dangerous influence with which it is calculated to swell the Fede- ral, and especially the Executive, power. The framers of the Con- stitution were, as all admit, hard-money men, and contemplated and intended the use of real money alone, the precious metals, in the fiscal concerns of the Government. The practice arose, under the original auspices of Hamilton, of dealing in bank paper, accompa- nied with that of depositing the revenue in banks; which connection with those institutions, as a system, became, in process of time, so intimate and apparently indissoluble, that the question of its consti- tutionality or even expediency, was not an open one for any prac- tical or useful purpose. There stood the fact, resting on a foundation seemingly as broad and deep as the foundations of the eternal hills; and abstractions of opinions and arguments, whether in relation to its constitutionality or good policy, could no more shake it, than the winds whistling around the base of the mountain. Thus connected with the banking system, and dealing in a paper currency, made by the Government itself money, so far as its operations were concerned, the Government was bound to regulate it, even by the means of a National Bank, if that was the most efficient instrument for the pur- pose. The question was never a free and open one, to be considered de novo, on original grounds of principle, before the present time. The recent explosion of the system has not only effected the ~total separation of the Government from it, by operation of law itself, but the opinions of men have been matured by time and experience to the point of preparation for a return to the original constitutional ground from which the Government never ought to have departed. The choice of practicable alternatives is not now, as on the former occasions, between a national bank and a league of banks, but be- tween the latter and the divorce. Either of the two extremes he pro. ferred to the middle course, which united the evils of both,be infi- nitely preferred the last to both the others, now that, for the first time in his life, he found himself and the country in such a position as to admit the possibility of a free choice. During the period of the contest between the late Administration and the Bank of the United States, though it is now so frequently referred to as period of sound and healthy currency, he had understood the real hollow character of that fair-seeming outward show of health and prosperity. He was that the currency was bloated, and was in a career of expansioli So John C. Calhoun.. [April, that threatened an eventual explosion such as has occurred. He considered the State Bank deposite system as calculated to promote that tendency; and that a National Bank under the control of Con- grcss, and suitably organized and regulated with reference to the object in view, afforded the only means of arresting that tendency, and, to use his own phrase at the time, to unbank the banks. He was therefore in favor of renewing its charter with proper modifications, for twelve years, being two years longer than the renewal of that of the Bank of England, in order that we might have the benefit of the wisdom and example of the economists and legislators of that coun- try, in determining upon our own future system. He had always entertained, and frequently expressed, great doubts as to the princi- ples on which our whole banking system was based,doubts as to its beneficial influence on the real prosperity, happiness, morals, and liberties of the people. He had distinctly intimated on a former occasion that if the question had then been between ban/c and no bank, he should not then have been found on the former side of it. After the removal of the deposites, he had even stated that if the ex- isting illegal and unconstitutional~ connection between the Execu- tive and the league of banks was to continue, he should himself feel bound to introduce a proposition to divorce the Government alto- gether from the banking system, by prohibiting it from receiving or touching bank notes at all. And he was now most happy to em- brace the first opportunity that presented itself, of realizing the aspi- ration, long cherished but never before feasible, of a separation of the Government from the whole system, and a return to the original intent of the Constitution, after all always found by experience to be the wisest policy, as it is the purest honesty,at least according to the Republican and State-Rights school of politics. Such was, substantially, Mr. Calhouns defence of himself against this charge of inconsistency of opinions. We regret that it is not in our power to publish the extracts from his former speeches by which he supported it; it is sufficient for us to say, that they fully sustained the position which he assumed, and to refer the reader, both as a point of some political and historical interest, and as justly due to Mr. Calhoun, to the speech itself in which he quotes those extracts. Mr. Calhoun has had to sustain a tremendous battery of attack, at the present session, from the two great leaders of the Opposition, Mr. Clay and Mr. Webster; and these encounters of intellectwhatever may be thought of the propriety of time and placehave presented scenes of an interest never probably surpassed on any similar occasion. The contest of mutual attack and defence went back to the commence- ment of the public lives of the eminent combatants, and afforded a highly interesting review of the political history of the country for the last twenty or thirty years. We have no space to travel over ~83S.] John C. Calhoun. SI the same ground, but have no hesitation in saying, that the combat appeared to us like that between the rock and the waves, and thaTt Mr. Calhoun established a vast intellectual superiority over both his great assailants together. His strong and far-reaching grasp of mind, his power of rapid and profound analysis and generalization, pooily evaded by sneers upon his metaphysical and visionary genius, his vigor of intellectual bound, and the self-evident can~ dor, depth and earnestness of his convictions, showed in signal su- periority, (according atleast to our opinion,) over the mental attributes of the more dexterous lawyer and politician, able, powerful and great, as both unquestionably are. The long protracted passage at arms be- tween him and Mr. Clay, in particular, which will never be forgotten by those who witnessed it, brought constantly to mind the recollec- tion of the encounter, in the desert, between the heavy mail-armed Christian knight and the agile and dexterous Saracen, of Scotts ro- mance of The Crusaders,a comparison of which the justice may very fairly be acknoxvledged by the friends of both parties. Mr. Calhoun is, undeniably, a great man. For a number of years past, as has been before remarked, he has been, according to our view, in a false position,lost and entangled in a morass, into which he was insensibly led by an ignis fatuns of personal feelings. He is now all himself againMacGregors foot again on his native heath. We had supposed it scarcely possible for him ever to become extri- cated from that false position, and again on firm and open ground. Probably no other man than himself could have thus effected it, by a single great stroke of genius. In that act, and in the mode in which performed, he has most emphatically shewn himself a great man. His Edgefield letter, followed up by his immediate declara- tion of support, on the reading of Mr. Van Burens Message at the Extra Session, and by the zeal and power since manifested by him in the van of the debate on the great question of the divorce, will constitute an imperishable monument of honorable fame. Inferior men would have sunk under the crisisas we have seen so many sad instances. With Mr. Calhoun there was no hesitating, no ne- gotiating, no wavering, no special-pleading about details, but he came out at once with all the energy of great intellectual power, all the confidence of immoveable strength of convictions, and all the frankness of conscious honesty and patriotism of purposetook his stand on the Constitution and on broad principles, indifferent how his abandonment of former party connections and the formation of new (so far as they should naturally arise out of the common sup- port of common principles) might be received by either partyand, in a word, proved himself by that single act, emphatically a great man. Whether the Republican party as a whole, over the Union, will ever forgive Mr. Calhoun the manner and spirit of his Opposition VOL. II. NO. V. Political Portraits.No. V. [April, to President Jacksons administration, notwithstanding all explana tions of circumstances and motives, well as he may have retrieved his position,we may not say; nor whether the odium attaching to the word Nullification, will ever be forgotten,even though the recollection of it be accompanied with a thought upon the gallantry and self-devotion with which, in that affair, according to the views of his friends, he sacrificed himself, probably for life, to a principle~ That question is to be solved by time alone. We will conclude this article, which has insensibly extended, in the frank explanation of our views of Mr. Calhouns party course and position, far beyond the limits of our intention, with the follow- ing sketch of him, drawn by a personal friend of that gentleman, a distinguished Representative from his own State, in the other House of Congress. Our own views on the subjects touched upon in it, have been sufficiently expressed in the foregoing pages, to render it unnecessary for us to make any invidious modification of this por- traiture by the hand of a friend, though it is proper for us thus to designate the quarter from which it proceeds. Mr. Calhoun has evidently taken Demosthenes for his model as a speakeror rather, I suppose, he has studied, while young, his ora- tions with great admiration, until they produced a decided impres- sion upon his mind. His recent speech in defence of himself against the attacks of Mr. Clay, is precisely on the plan of the famous ora- tion De Corona, delivered by the great Athenian, in vindication of himself from the elaborate and artful attacks of A~schines. While the one says: Athenians! to you I appeal, my judges and my wit- nesses !the other says: In proof of this, I appeal to you, Sena- tors, my witnesses and my judges on this occasion ! A~schines ac- cused Demosthenes of having received a bribe from Philip, and the latter retorted by saying that the other had accused him of doing what he himself had notoriously done. Mr. Clay says, that Mr. Cal- houn had gone over, and he left to time to disclose his motives. Mr~ Calhoun retorts: Leave it to time to disclose my motives for going over! I, who have changed no opinion, abandoned no principle, and deserted no partyI, who have stood still and maintained my ground against every difficulty, to be told that it is left to time to disclose my motive! The imputation sinks to the earth with the groundless charge on which it rests. I stamp it down in the dust. I pick up the dart which fell harmless at my feet. I hurl it back. What the Senator charges on me unjustly, he has actually done. He went over on a memorable occasion, and did not leave it to time to disclose his motive. In the conception and arrangement of the whole speech, in fact, there is a remarkable similarity to the speech of the great Athenian. And where could any man find a no- bler model? For withering sarcasmburning invectivelofty de 183S.] Jo/un C. Calhoun. clamationfor all that is spirit-stirring and glorious in eloquence, there is not on record, in any language, as noble and perfect a spe- cimen as this Oration for the Crown. Mr. Calhoun, in the simplicity and brevity of his sentences, throughout all his speeches, shows the model he has studied. In fact his whole character and life are eminently Greek. His striking and grand conceptionswith his unassuming and plain mannershis calm dignity and composurehis sternness and exemplary purity in private and public life, all show that he has bathed deep in the foun- tains of antiquity. In one faculty of the mind he surpasses any public man of the age, and that is in analysis. His power to examine a complex idea. and exhibit to you the simple ideas of which it is composed, is won- derful. Hence it is that he generalizes with such great rapidity, that ordinary minds suppose, at first, he is theoretical; whereas he has only reached a point at a single bound, to which it would re- quire long hours of sober reflection for them to attain. It is a mis~- take to suppose that he jumps at his conclusions without due care and consideration. No man examines with more care, or with more intense labor, every question upon which his mind is called to act. The difference between him and others is, that he thinks constantly with little or no relaxation. Hence the restless activity and energy of his mind always place him far in advance of those around him. He has reached the summit, while they have just commenced to as- cend, and cannot readily discover the path which bas lead him to his lofty and extensive view. Mr. Calhoun evidently has studied our system of government very profoundly and philosophically, on the leading ideas of the school of Jefferson. His great speech in reply to Mr. Webster, on the fede~. rative principle of the Constitution, and the sovereignty of the States, is one of the most profound and finished commentaries upon that noble instrument and its formation, that has ever been produced by the genius of man. On that remarkable occasion, he simplified the points of controversy with his distinguished antagonist to such a degree, that he compelled him to deny that our system of Govern- ment was a con.~titutional compact; and finally forced him to the position, that the Government itself had substantive and independent rights, as if the Government was not made by the Constitution, and had no existence, in a sin6le attribute, without it. This debate was managed with great power and ability on both sides. Both speakers saw that the whole argument turned upon the point whether the Con- stitution was a compact or not. If it was admitted, the wit of man could not avoid the conclusion, that each party to the compact must of necessity judge of its provisions and infractions, or surrender up their original character as sovereign contracting parties, to a govern- 84 Political Portraits.No. V. [April, ment with power to define its own limitations, and, of necessity, to make and unmake the compact at the xviii and pleasure of those who might chance to give it impulse and vitality. This subject eminently suited Mr. Calhouns mind and habits of thou ht, and he coaso- quently exhibited a power of argumenta distinctness of analysis and a luminous investigation of the attributes and nature of govern- mentwhich will stand a monument to his fame, as long as the American eagle shall present to the world that bright constellation of independent States which now glitte; and blaze around its brow. No human being can read that speech without feeling that it contains the same doctrines which were proclaimed in the Kentucky and Vir- ginia resolutions of 98, and in the immortal report of Mr. Madison, around which the Republican party rallied with the devotion of those who felt the liberties of their country to be involved. As a public speaker and debater, Mr. Calhoun is energetic and im- pressiveto the highest degree. Without having much of the action of an orator, yet his compressed liphis erect and stern attitudes his iron countenance, compressed lip, and flashing eyeall make him at times eloquent in the full sense of the word. No man can hear him without feeling. His power is in clear analysissuppressed passion, and lofty earnestness. As to the great questions connected with the currency of the present day, it is vain and idle to contend with him. It has been the subject of his daily thought for more than twenty years. He is before his age, but he will, triumph, and pos- terity will be astoni ~hed at the profoundness and the sagacity of his views. Many suppose that he has an absorbing ambition; but this is a mistake, and it arises from the natural activity of his mind on all questions of much interest, and his constant and ardent patriotism. Devotion to the honor and liberties of his country is his consuming passion, and his ardent pursuit of what he conceives to be her interests is mistaken by the superficial observer for overweening ambition. Ambition he has, but it is high and noble, and like the Romans, iden- tified with love for Rome. his nullification, so much misunderstood nnd misrepresented, was with him a pure and enthusiastic devotion to the true spirit of the Constitution and the permanent interest of the whole Union, according to his understanding of them. his greatest weakness, if weakness it can be called, is his free and unreserved confidence in those who are not his friends. This arises from the natural iategrit~ and unsuspecting character of his heart. Another weakness perhaps is, that he talks too much, forgetting that there is often dignity and power in impressive silence, particularly after a man has acquired fame. This arises, however, from the simplicity of character and great love of truth, which makes him eager to present her to others that they may receive and love her too, with veneration equal to his own 1838.1 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN.4 The deep and universal interest in the results of the discoverie. of Columbus, which has prevailed throughout the scientific world ever since they were made, not only led to a minute investigation of the train of thought which guided him to them, but also directed the public attention with new force to the accounts of certain pre- ceding voyages to the western world, which had created little or no impression at the time of their first publication; and would, perhaps, have been forgotten, if the revelation of America had not thrown a new light upon every thing however remotely connected with the subject. Among these accounts, the most remarkable and credible is that of a supposed discovery of some part of the eastern coast of our continent, by Northmen sailing from Iceland and Greenland in the early part of the eleventh century,that is, nearly five hundred years before the voyages of Columbus. The original sources of this account are found in the works of several Icelandic writers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which for the most part still remain unpublished in the libraries of the North of Europe. The substance of the passages in question was, however, pretty early made known, through various channels, to the reading world. Adam, of Bremen, alludes to them in his Ecclesias- tical History, as early as 1075, and Ortelius in his The atrurn Orbis, in 1570. In 1705, Torfteus, historiographer for Norway to the King of Denmark, published in Latin a succinct but very curious work on the subject, entitled Historict Vinlandicce Antiquae,the history of Old Wineland,the name given by the Northmen to a portion of the country which they visited. Almost all the modern writers on general geography, or on that of the northern regions, mention these accounts,particularly Cranz in his history of Greenland,~Ponto~ pidan in that of Norway,J. R. Forster in his collection of northern voya~ es,Malte Brun in his Universal Geography,and Alexander Von Humboldt in a recent work upon the precise question of the knowledge possessed by the Europeans of the western world before Columbus. The subject has been recommended to the attention of the American public by Belknap in his American Biography, Wash- ington Irving in his Life of Columbus, and Wheaton in his History of the Northmen. It is also slightly mentioned by Mr. Bancroft in the first volume of his History of the United States. The degrees * ANTIQYITATES AnEaIcAN~: siTe Scriptores Septentrionales Rerum Ante-Co1um~ bianaruni in America. Edidit Societas Regia Antiqvariorurn Septentrionaliuxn. Hafniae, 4to. pp. 4471837.

1838.1 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN.4 The deep and universal interest in the results of the discoverie. of Columbus, which has prevailed throughout the scientific world ever since they were made, not only led to a minute investigation of the train of thought which guided him to them, but also directed the public attention with new force to the accounts of certain pre- ceding voyages to the western world, which had created little or no impression at the time of their first publication; and would, perhaps, have been forgotten, if the revelation of America had not thrown a new light upon every thing however remotely connected with the subject. Among these accounts, the most remarkable and credible is that of a supposed discovery of some part of the eastern coast of our continent, by Northmen sailing from Iceland and Greenland in the early part of the eleventh century,that is, nearly five hundred years before the voyages of Columbus. The original sources of this account are found in the works of several Icelandic writers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which for the most part still remain unpublished in the libraries of the North of Europe. The substance of the passages in question was, however, pretty early made known, through various channels, to the reading world. Adam, of Bremen, alludes to them in his Ecclesias- tical History, as early as 1075, and Ortelius in his The atrurn Orbis, in 1570. In 1705, Torfteus, historiographer for Norway to the King of Denmark, published in Latin a succinct but very curious work on the subject, entitled Historict Vinlandicce Antiquae,the history of Old Wineland,the name given by the Northmen to a portion of the country which they visited. Almost all the modern writers on general geography, or on that of the northern regions, mention these accounts,particularly Cranz in his history of Greenland,~Ponto~ pidan in that of Norway,J. R. Forster in his collection of northern voya~ es,Malte Brun in his Universal Geography,and Alexander Von Humboldt in a recent work upon the precise question of the knowledge possessed by the Europeans of the western world before Columbus. The subject has been recommended to the attention of the American public by Belknap in his American Biography, Wash- ington Irving in his Life of Columbus, and Wheaton in his History of the Northmen. It is also slightly mentioned by Mr. Bancroft in the first volume of his History of the United States. The degrees * ANTIQYITATES AnEaIcAN~: siTe Scriptores Septentrionales Rerum Ante-Co1um~ bianaruni in America. Edidit Societas Regia Antiqvariorurn Septentrionaliuxn. Hafniae, 4to. pp. 4471837. 86 Discovery of America by the NorthLinen. [April, of importance, which these writers respectively attach to the ac~ counts in question, are exceedingly various. By some they are re- jected as entirely fabulous, and by others regarded as questionable; but the majority, including the most learned and judicious, and par- ticularly Humboldt,on all subjects of this class the suinmus auctor,highest of authorities,are disposed to receive them as substantially authentic, though alloyed perhaps by a mixture of doubtful or fabulous matter. We mention the names of these writers, in order to show that this supposed discovery of America by the Northmen, is not, as some have imagined, a recent revelation of matters before unknoxvn, but is founded in ancient authorities, which have alxvays to a greater or less extent occupied the attention of the scientific geographer, and even of the general reading public. One of the results of the constantly increasing interest taken abroad in every thing relating to this country, was the determina- tion formed about ten years ago by the Royal Antiquarian Society of Copenhagen, to publish the authorities upon which these accounts rest, in the original dialects, accompanied with full commentaries and illustrations. The plan has been carried into effect with great in- dustry and success, under the direction of Mr. C. C. Rafn, as editor. The results are exhibited in the large and valuable volume now be- fore us. It includes the text of the original authorities in the Ice landic tongue, xvith translations into Danish and Latin, and a pretty full abstract, in English, of the narrative, which has been republished in a separate form at New York. There is also a commentary in Latin, intended to illustrate the geographical questions involved in the subject, and an in~tructive correspondence between the Danish Anti- quarian Society, and the Historical Society of Rhode Island, through their Secretary, Dr. Webb, upon the same point. The work is printed in a style corresponding with its importance, and contains fine fac similes of the principal Icelandic manuscripts, with all the ne- cessary maps and drawings. Whatever may be thought of the con- lusions of the Danish Antiquarian Society, in regard to some points, respecting which they are, perhaps, rather too sanguine,it must be admitted by all, that the work is in the highest degree creditable to them, and forms a most valuable addition to the geographical literature of the western continent. It is but just and proper to add, that great credit is due to the Historical Society of Rhode Island,one of the the mo t recently established in the country,and especially to their learned and zealous secretary, Dr. Webb, of Providence, for their active cooperation in this enterprise. The Danish antiquaries appear to have relied entirely upon him for the aid which they had occasion to call for from this side of the Atlantic, and the spirit and efficiency with which he entered into their views, reflects honor upon his own character and that of the society represented by him, 1838.] Conquests of the Northmem. 87 to whose meritorious labors upon other subjects we have cursorily alluded in a former article in this Review. In noticing the important and valuable work now before us, we ~ball first present to our readers a rapid sketch of the events de- scribed, and afterwards, in a subsequent article, endeavour to estimate the degree of credibility which properly belongs to the account, and to ascertain, as well as we can, what part of the continent the North- men probably visited~ Before proceeding to particulars, it may be well to remark, that the Northmen, at the time when the discovery is supposed to have been made, were the greatest navigators in Europe. They were just in their palmy state of expansion and activity. Their piratical squadrons showed themselves successively on the coast of almost every known region, and constantly maintained the ascendency that results from superior activity, energy and courage. During the two or three centuries preceding their discovery of America, they had spread themselves over all the islands of the British Archipelago, and had finally seated one of their princes, the great Canute, upon the throne of Alfred. At about the same time, they conquered one of the finest portions of France, to which they gave their name of Normandy. When the Saxon blood temporarily re- gained the ascendency in England, one of their chieftains, as if to vindicate the honor of the stock, crossed the channel from Nor- mandy, crushed by a single decisive blow the feeble array of his competitor, at the battle of Hastings, and secured to himself and his posterity the British sceptre. Not content with these con- quests, the Northmen entered the Mediterranean, took possession of Sicily and the northern coasts of Italy and Greece, and for a time gave law from the thrones of Jerusalem and Constantinople. They displayed every where a hardihood and enterprise, in which they have never been surpassed by any maritime nation, and could they have anticipated by a century or two the discovery of the compass, would have given to their influence upon the ocean the same uni- versal extent, which a similar dominion has since assumed in the hands of the Spaniards, tbe Portuguese, the Dutch, the Englisb, and, for commercial purposes, the United States. With all their wild habits of predatory violence, they were nevertheless a highly imagina- tive and poetical people; in their later period, they became a re- fined, accomplished and literary one. Iceland was for a time one of the seats of the monkish learning of the middle ages. In more southern climates, the Norman nobles tempered their original roughness with the gentle graces of civilization, and in the long x ars that were undertaken for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre, they led the van of the chivalry of Europe. While yet in their earlier period,at the time when we meet them in America,they justified [ApriT Discovery of America by the Nortlimen. completely the beautiful description given of them by Scott, in the Lay of the Last Minstrel, in speaking of the Western Islands Thither came in times afar,. Stern Loeblins sons of rovin~ war,. The INorth~ ien, trained to fire and blood, Skilled to prepare the ravens food, Kinds of the main, their leaders brave, Their barks, th dra~ons of the wave. Among the less considerable achievements of the earlier history of the Northmen, were the colonization of Iceland, in the year 875, and that of Greenland, in the year 986. The leader of the colony, which settled in the latter region was Eric Rauda, or the Red. He establish- ed his residence at a place x hich he called Brattalid, situated on an~ inlet, to which he gave th& n me of Ericsflord. lie bestowed upon the country the attractive name of Greenland,as a lure to emi grants. His principal companions, in like manner, gave their names to their respective places of residence. Heriuif fixed himself at Heriulfsness, or Cape Heriulf, on HeriulfsflordRaffl, at Rafns fiord, and so of the rest. It may be remarked here, that these names are still preserved in the geography of Greenland, and while they serve to perpetuate the memory of the first settlers, identify them, for the present purpose, as real historical personages, in contradis- tinction to the imaginary heroes of a mere fiction. The colonization of Greenland by the Nortbmen, was the event that led immediately to their discovery of America. Even before- this time, it wa-s obviously in no way improbable that some of their ships navigating between Norway, the British Archipelago and Ice- land, all which countries were then in their possession, should be driven out of their course by strong easterly winds as far as the coast of Amen a. Some such accidents, previous to those which form the main subject of the work before us, are, in fact, alluded to by the Icelandic writers and others may have happened without leaving any trace in history. But when the Northmen had extended their settlements to a point so near the American coast as Greenland, oc- currences of this kind became almost matters of course. We find, accordingly, that the year succeeding their establishment in that country~ is the one assigned by the Icelandic writers to the dis- covery of America. The account of the latter event, as given by these xvriters , omitting a good deal of extraneous matter, some of which, as we shall have. occasVon to mention, is of an obviously fabulous charncter,is briefly as foflows. Among the companions of Eric Rauda, or the Red,the leader- of the colony which settled in Greenlnnd,was Heriulf, whose name is still attached to the southern promontory of Greenland; called by the English, Cape Farewell. Herinlf had a son named Biarne, who 1838.1 Voyages of Biarne and Leif 89 is represented in the Icelandic chronicles as a young man of great merit. He had early engaged in commercial enterprises which had been attended with success. It was his practice to pass his winters alternately in foreign parts and at home with his father. In pursu- ance of this habit, he had passed the winter of the year, when his father emigrated to Greenland, in Norway, and on returning home the next summer found him gone. He determined at once to follow, and having obtained the assent of his crew, set sail without dis- charging his cargo, though unacquainted with the course. After losing sight of land they met with northerly winds and fogs, and were driven about many days and nights without knowing where they were. When the fog cleared away they made sail and the same day saw land. The coast was low and sandy, rising gradually into hills covered with wood. As it did not correspond with the description given of that of Greenland, they left it to larboard and steered a northerly course. After another days sail they made land a second time. It was low and woody as before. They now put to sea again, and after sailing three and a half days with a southwest wind made land a third time. It proved to be a bold shore surrounded with ice, and on further exploration they discovered it to be an island. Once more leaving the land behind them, and pursuing their way to the north, after two days and two nights sail they vnade the southern cape of Greenland, where Biarne found his father. The chronicle adds that this was his last voyage,that he thenceforth lived with his father, and after his death took possession of the homestead, where he fixed his residence. The discoveries of Biarne naturally became a subject of much conversation in Greenland. At length Leif, a son of Eric the Red, the leader and chief of the colony, determined to undertake another voyage in the same direction. He accordingly purchased Biarnes ship, and engaged a crew of thirty-five men, including a German named Tyrker, who had lived from his youth in Erics family. It may be remarked, that it was about this time that Christianity was introduced among the Northmen, and Leif is described as the person by whom it was brought into Greenland. Being at Drontheim a few years before, he had met with Olaus, King of Norxvay, who had come to that place, for the purpose of converting the natives to Christianity; was converted by him, and on his return carried back the new faith with him to Greenland. The date of Leifs voyage is assigned to the year 1000. On leav- ing Greenland, he first made the land, which had been last seen by Biarne, and found it, as described by him, a barren coast, rising into lofty mountains covered with ice and snow; the space between them and the shore, being a naked rock entirely destitute of herbage. He gave the country the name of Ilelluland, from the Icelandic word go Discovery of America by the Northmen. [April, Ilella, which signifies a flat rock. They put to sea again, and on making land a second time, they found the appearance of it corres- ponding with that of the coasts first seen by Biarne. It was a level shore, covered with white sand, and rising into hills crowned with wood. They called it Marklctnd, from the Icelandic word Mark, which signifies wood. They now put to sea a third time, with a northeasterly wind, and after two days sail once more made land. There was an island near the coast, upon which they landed: the weather was pleasant, and the grass covered with dew, which, on tasting it, they found of a singular sweetness. They sailed west- ward, through a strait which separated the island from a promon- tory projecting northerly from the shore, and finally reached a place where a river, issuing from a lake above, fell into the sea. Here Leif determined to establish his colony, and having transported his effects, in boats, from the ship to the shore of the lake, he erected wooden huts for the temporary accommodation of his men. After- wards, when they had made up their minds to stay, they built larger houses, and called the settlement LeiJs I3udir or Booths. When the work of building was finished, Leif divided his men into two parties, one of which regularly kept watch at home, while the other explored the country, hut not so far as to be away more than a day at a time. Leif himself alternately accompanied each of the parties. The Chronicle here interrupts the narrative, to remark that Leif was a. tall and robust man, uncommonly dignified in his personal appear- ance, and very prudent and judicious in the management of his affairs. One evening, on the return of the exploring party, it appeared that the German, Tyrker, was missing. Leif was much alarmed at this, and set forth with twelve men in search of him; hut had not pro- ceeded far when he met him returning. He gave as a reason for his delay, that he had been gathering grapes, of which he had found a great abundance. This was a fruit unknown to the Northmen, but with which and its uses, Tyrker, as a German, was acquainted. In consequence of this discovery, Leif gave to the country the name of WINELAND, to which his countrymen seem to have subsequently added the epithet Good, as it is generally mentioned in the Chroni- des, under the name of WINELAND THE GooD. The men now em- ployed themselves alternately in gathering grapes and in cutting wood, with which they loaded the ship. The river abounded with fish, and particularly salmon of a large size. The climate was very mild; there was no frost or snow; and the grass faded so little that the cattle were kept out at pasture all the winter. On the shortest day of the year, according to the translation of the Chronicle given by the Danish Antiquaries, the sun rose at half past seven oclock in the morning, and set at half past four in the evening. This occurs 1838.] Voyage of Thorwald. 91 in about the latitude of Cape Cod, so that if the translation can be depended on, there is no doubt of the identity of XVineland with Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Itis proper to add, however, that the meaning of this passage is a matter of dispute among the learned. We shall advert to it again in the sequel. The following spring, Leif set sail, with his cargo of wood, and arrived safely in Greenland, having on his way rescued fifteen ship-wrecked mariners, from a rock near the coast. Leif obtained great consideration, as well as profit from his voyage, and was ever after designated as Leif him heppni, or the Lucky. His father Erie died the same year, and Leif appears to have taken no farther personal share in the exploration of the new-found territory. The land first seen by Leif, and by him named Helluland, is iden- tified by the Danish Antiquaries with Labrador. Markiand they suppose to be Nova Scotia, and Wineland the Good, as we intimated just now, Ma. sachusetts and Rhode Island. The island mentioned in the Chronicle, as lying near the coast of Wineland, is thought to be Nantucket, and the promontory Cape Cod: the river and lake are found in Narragansett harbor with its tributary streams, and Leifs Booths are placed on the shore of Mount Hope Bay. The discoveries of Leif, of course. increased the interest that had been excited in Greenland by those of Biarne. The following year, (1001,) Thorwald, a brother of Leif, determined to explore still farther the new-found region, and borrowing Leifs ship for the purpose, set sail upon the expedition. He arrived, without any par- ticular adventure, at Leifs Booths, where he passed the winter, employing his company chiefly in fishing. In the spring, Thorwald despatched a party of men in the boat, to explore the country to the southwest. They found it beautiful and well wooded, with but little interval between the woods and the sea, which abounded in islands and shallows. They saw no traces of human habitation, ex- cepting a wooden shed upon one of the islands. The party returned in the autumn to Leifs Booths. In the following spring, (1002) Thorwald sailed eastward in the ship, and finally doubled a cape, upon which he was afterwards shipwrecked. To this cape he gave the name of Kialarness, or Keel Cape. It is supposed by tbe Danish Society to be Cape Cod, which, in fact, bears some resemblance, in the general outline, to the keel of a ship. After repairing his vessel, Thorwald pursued his course to the west, until he reached a promontory covered with vood, which he thought so beautiful, that he determined to make it the seat of his settlement. At this place the Northmen found three canoes, each having on board three of the natives, whom the Chron- icle calls Skraellinggar,the name given in Greenland to the Esquimaux. A skirmish ensued, in which eight of the natives were 92 Discovery of America by the Northmen. [April, killed the ninth escaped, and soon after returned with an accessian of force. Another engagement then took place, which terminated in the retirement of the natives. In the course of it, however, Thor- wald, the leader of the expedition, received a mortal wound under the arm from an arrow. He summoned his followers around him, and inquired whether any of them were wounded, to which they all replied in the negative. As for me, continued Thorwald, I have received a wound under the arm from an arrow, and I feel that it will be mortal. I advise you to prepare immediately for your re- turn: but ye shall first carry my body to the promontory which I thovght so beautiful, and where I had determined to fix my resi- dence. It may be that it was a prophetic word which fell from my lips, about my abiding there for a season. There shall ye bury me, and ye shall plant a cross at my head, and another at my feet, and ye shall call the name of the place Krossanes,Cape Cross,-..-- through all future time. Thorwald died, as he anticipated, of his wound, and was buried by his companions in the manner ~vhich he had directed. It will be re- collected that his brother Leif was the first convert to Christianity in Greenland; and it was doubtless by him, that Thorwald had been instructed in the new religion. The companions of Thorwald re- turncd to Leifs Booths; and the following spring, (1005) they sailed again for Greenland. Kialarness, or Keel Cape, is supposed by the Danish Society, as we remarked just now, to be Cape Cod. Admitting this supposition to be correct, the promontory where Thorwald was buried must be somewhcre in Massachusetts Bay. The Danish Society suppose it to be either Gurnet Point, near Plymouth, or Alderton Point, at the extremity of Nantasket Beach, near Boston. On their map, Gurnet Point is marked, as Krossanes, or Cape Cross. On the other sup- position, the monument of Thorwald would fall within the precincts of the little village of Hull, which is, in fact, one of the most beauti- ful spots in the neighbourhood of Boston. On the return of the expedition to Greenland, Thorstein, a third son of Eric, determined to proceed to Wineland, and bring back his brothers body. lie accordingly fitted out the same ship, ~vith a crew of twenty-five men; taking also with him his wife Gudrida. This voyage proved an unsuccessful one. They were tossed about upon the ocean all summer, without knowing where they were, un- til at the opening of the winter they finally reached Greenland. Thorstein died soon after, and his widow Gudrida returned to the family residence at Ericsfiord. In the course of the following year, (1000) there arrived in Green- land two ships from Iceland, one of them commanded by Thorfina, significantly called Karlsefne, that is,a man of promise. lIe xvai 1838.j Voyage of Thorfinn. 93 wealthy and powerful person of illustrious lineage, being descend.. ed from Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Scotch and Irish ancestors; some of whom were kings, or of royal descent. He was accompa- nied by Snorre Thorbrandson, also a person of distinction in Iceland. They remained in Greenland through the year, and kept the festival of Yule, or Christmas, at Brattalid, the residence of Eric, who was now dead. During the winter, rfhorfinn became enamoured of Gu- drida, the widow of Thorstein, and obtained the consent of Leif to marry her. The discovery and exploration of the new-found region of IVineland the Good were still the principal subjects of conversa- tion in the family. Thorfian was strongly urged by his wife, and other friends, to undertake a voyage in that direction, which he finally determined to do. Accordingly, the following spring, (1007) he fitted out an expedition, composed of three ships, carrying a hun- dred and forty men. He took the command himself of one of the vessels, on board of which he was accompanied by his wife Gudrida and his friend Snorre. One of the other ships was commanded by Biarne Grimolfson, of Breidefiord, and Thorhall Gamlason, of Aust- fiord, in Iceland. The third belonged to Tbor~vald, who had mar- ried a natural daughter of Eric, named Freydisa. She accompanied her husband, who also took with him Thorhall, an experienced huntsman, and confidential servant of the late Eric. With this little fleet, about equal in force to that with which Columbus made his first voyage, Thorfinn set sail from Greenland. After landing at Ilelluland and Markland, he proceeded on a south- west course, having the land on his right, un til he came to Kialar- ness. This cape is described in the chronicle of his voyage, as con- sisting of unexplored deserts, skirted by a long, sandy shore, to which he gave the name of Furdustrandar,a far-extended strand, or as some explain it, a wondrous strand, or beach. Here the naviga- tors remained a few days, and made some slight exploration of the country; in the course of which they found grapes and wheat grow- ingwild. They then continued their course, until they came to a frith or inlet, at the entrance of which was an island. The currents ran with great rapidity round the island, and in the frith itself; in allusion to which circumstance, Thorfiun gave the island, the name of Straum-Ey,Stream Island, and the inlet, that of Stram2m-Fiord, Stream-frith. They found the island frequented by such an im- mense number of birds, that it was hardly possible to walk, without treading upon their eggs. Here Thorfian landed, and fixed his res- idence for the winter. The following spring, Thorhall set forth with eight of the men, in search of Wineland, but was driven by westerly gales across the ocean, upon the coast of Ireland, where they were made slaves. rfhorfinn with the rest of the company, took the other direction to the southwest, and soon reached Leifs 94 Discovery of Anzeric~ by the IVortlimen. [April, Booths, which were situated, as has been seen, on the shore of a lake that discharged its waters into the ocean, through a river. Before the mouth of the river, there were large islands. Thorfiun gave to the lake, the name of Hop,equivalent to haven, or bay. He found wheat growing wild on the low grounds, and vines on the bills. The N orthrnen erected additional dwelling houses, at a little distance from the bay, and passed the winter at this place. The climate appear- ed to them, as it had to Leif and his company, extremely mild. No snow fell, and the cattle were kept out at pasture through the win- ter. Early in the spring, the settlement was visited by the natives in canoes, who carried on a friendly intercourse with the Northmen, exchanging furs, for milk-soup and cloth. About this time, Gudri- da, the wife of Thorfiun ,gave birth to a son, who was named Snorre. At the opening of the following winter, the natives appeared again, in greater numbers, and with hostile intentions. A skirmish ensued, in which some of the Northrnen were killed, but in which the natives were finally repulsed, not without the active interference of the Northern women, and particularly Freydisa. The hostile disposition shown by the natives, seems to have satisfied the Northmen, that the country, notwithstanding its natural advantages, would be an uncom- fortable resi(lence. They accordingly determined to abandon the idea of a settlement, and prepare for returning to Greenland. With this view, they left hop, and proceeded to Straum-Ey, where they passed the next winter. The following spring, (1011) after a three years abode, they took their departure from Wineland, and having touched on the way at other points on the coast, and taken on board some of the natives, arrived safely in Greenland. The island, called by the Northmen, Straum.Ey, is supposed by the Danish Antiquaries to be Marthas Vineyard, and Straum-fiord, Buzzards Bay. It is a rather remarkable coincidence, between the present state of those islands, and the description given in the nar- rative, that one or more of tbem are now denominated the Egg Is- lands. The name Hop is supposed by the Society, to be retained in the Mount Hope of the present day. The bay described in the narrative, is Mount Hope Bay; and the river which runs from it into the ocean, Pocasset River. Leifs Booths, as has been remarked before, were supposed to have been placed upon the shore of Mount Hope Bay, and Thorfina is believed to have erected his houses, which are said to have been on higher ground, on the elevation above. Such are the principal particulars given in the chronicles of the most important expedition which was ever fitted out by the North- men for the exploration of the new-found region. It appears to have resulted in the abandonment by those who were engaged in it, of the plan of establishing a colony, on account of the ferocious cha- racter of the natives. On his return to Greenland, Thorfian engaged 1838.] Visit of Bishop Eric. 95 in trading expeditions to Norway, and in 1015 purchased an estate in Iceland, where he passed~the remainder of his life. His son, Snorre, who was born in Wineland, succeeded him in the estate and became a person of high consideration in the country. On the marriage of Snorre, his mother, Gudrida, made a pilgrimage to Rome, and after her return retired into a convent for the rest of her life. A nume- rous and illustrious progeny descended from Thorfiun, through his American-born son, Snorre, among whom may be mentioned Bishop Thorlak, (a grandson of Snorre, by his daughter Elfrida,) who was the author of the oldest work on the Ecclesiastical Law of Iceland, published in 1123. To him we are probably indebted for the ac- counts of the voyages of his ancestors to Wineland. The record of the several generations of this remarkable family has been con- tinued unbroken up to the present day, and is given entire in all its branches in the work before us. The list of the descendants of Thorfinn includes a large number of persons distinguished in diffe- rent ways in the administration and ruagistracy of the northern kingdoms,in the church, in letters and the arts. Among them are priests, professors, judges, bishops, earls and ambassadors. One of them married a sister of the Danish historian, Torfa~us, whose connexion with the family may, perhaps, have led him to undertake the work on Wineland, to which we have alluded. Among the rep- resentatives of Thorfinn and Gudrida, now living, or deceased since the commencement of the present century, are three professors at the University of Copenhagen, one of whom, Finn Magnussen, is still living, and has contributed his share to the work before us ; the late Chief Justice of Iceland, Magnus Stevenson ;the late Bishop of Iceland, Geir Vidalin ;and finally no less a personage than the celebrated Bertel Thorxvaldsen,since the death of Canova, by general acknowledgment, the first sculptor of the age. Subsequently to the great expedition of Thorfinn, there are very few particulars mentioned in the Icelandic writers respecting the new-found regions. These appear to have been pretty soon virtually abandoned, and finally almost forgotten. The same year, however, (1011,) in which Thorfinn returned, Freydisa, who had accompanied him, fitted out a single ship, in which she sailed herself, in company with two Norwegians, Helge and Finnboge, recently arrived in Green3.. land, a crew of about thirty-five men and a number of women. She returned the next year, without having attempted a settlement, and her companions are represented as having destroyed each other In private quarrels. The next incident in the history of Wineland is the visit of Eric, Bishop of Greenland, who is represented as having gone there, pro- bably for missionary purposes, in the year 1121. Nothing farther is Discovery of America by the Northmeu. [April, said upon the subject, and it is not known whether he returned, or settled in Wineland. In the year 1285, two clergymen, well known in the ecclesiastical history of Iceland, are described as having discovered a land to the west of Iceland, which is supposed to have been Newfoundland. No particulars are given. Finally, in the year 1345, a voyage i,~ mentioned from Greenland to Markland, performed in a vessel hav- ing a crew of fifteen men. In the bfief allusion which is made to this voyage, Markland is not spoken of as a newly discovered country. It may therefore be concluded, that the knowledge of it had not been lost, although the intercourse was probably not frequent, as is apparent from the fact that a single trading voyage is alluded to in a general description of the affairs of the country. To complete the view of what, so far as we are informed, was known by the Northmen of America, it may be proper to add that the natives taken on board by Thorfinn, on his return voyage, gave him an account of a country southwest of Wineland, inhabited by a race of men, apparently, from the description, of European origin. They are supposed, by the Society, to have been of Irish extraction, as traditionary accounts are mentioned in the Icelandic chronicles, of two Icelanders, who had been successively driven, by stress of weather, upon this part of the coast, and had found there a popula- tion which they supposed to be Irish. The region alluded to in these traditionary accounts is named, in some old geographical works of the middle ages, cited in the volume before us, flmitrctmannctland, or the country of white men; and Irlcznct-it-ntilclct or Great Ireland. In the map accompanying the volume, it occupies the place of the southern States of our Union. Such is the outline of the accounts given in the Icelandic writers of the accidental discovery of this continent by the Northmen, and of the voyages which were subsequently undertaken by them for its exploration and settlement. In a future article we shall examine the question how far the narrative is entitled to credit, and, supposing it to be substantially true, on what part of the coast the Northmen probably landed. 97 AN AMERICAN FOREST SPRING. Now fluttering breezenow stormy blast, Mild rain, then blustering snow Winters stern fettering cold is passed, But, sweet Spring! where art thou? The white cloud floats mid smiling blue, The broad bright sunshines golden hue Bathes the still frozen earth, Tis changd !above, black vapours roll, We turn from our expected stroll, And seek the blazing hearth. Hark, that sweet carol! with delight We leave the stifling room; The little blue bird greets our sight, Spring, glorious Spring, has come! The south-winds balm is in the air, The melting snow wreaths every where Are leaping off in showers, And Nature, in her brightening looks, Tells that her flowers, and leaves, and brooks, And birds, will soon be ours. A few soft sunny days have shone, The air has lost its chill, A bright green tinge succeeds the brown Upon the southern hill. Off to the woodsa pleasant scene Here sprouts the fresh young wintergreen, There swells a mossy mound, Though in the hollows drifts are piled, The wandering wind is sweet and mild, And buds are bursting round. Where its long rings uncurls the fern, The violet, nestling low, Casts back the white lid of its urn, Its purple streaks to show: Beautiful blossom! first to rise And smile beneath Springs wakening skies, The courier of the band Of coming flowers, what feelings sweet Gush, as the silvery gem we meet Upon its slender wand. VOL. II. NO. v. G

97 AN AMERICAN FOREST SPRING. Now fluttering breezenow stormy blast, Mild rain, then blustering snow Winters stern fettering cold is passed, But, sweet Spring! where art thou? The white cloud floats mid smiling blue, The broad bright sunshines golden hue Bathes the still frozen earth, Tis changd !above, black vapours roll, We turn from our expected stroll, And seek the blazing hearth. Hark, that sweet carol! with delight We leave the stifling room; The little blue bird greets our sight, Spring, glorious Spring, has come! The south-winds balm is in the air, The melting snow wreaths every where Are leaping off in showers, And Nature, in her brightening looks, Tells that her flowers, and leaves, and brooks, And birds, will soon be ours. A few soft sunny days have shone, The air has lost its chill, A bright green tinge succeeds the brown Upon the southern hill. Off to the woodsa pleasant scene Here sprouts the fresh young wintergreen, There swells a mossy mound, Though in the hollows drifts are piled, The wandering wind is sweet and mild, And buds are bursting round. Where its long rings uncurls the fern, The violet, nestling low, Casts back the white lid of its urn, Its purple streaks to show: Beautiful blossom! first to rise And smile beneath Springs wakening skies, The courier of the band Of coming flowers, what feelings sweet Gush, as the silvery gem we meet Upon its slender wand. VOL. II. NO. v. G American Forest Spring. [Apr A sudden roara shade is cast We look tp wth a start, And sounding like a transient blast, Oerhead the pigeons dart; Scarce their blue glancing shapes the ey Can trace, ere, dotted on the sky, They wheel in distant flight. A chirpand swift the squirrel scours; Along the prostrate trunk, and cowers Within its clefts, fiom sight. Amid the creeping vine, which spread Its thick and verdant wreath, The scaur-berrys downy spangle shed Its rich delicious breath. The bee-swarm murmurs by, and now It clusters black en yonder bough The robins mottled breast Glance that sunny spot across, As round it seeks the twig and moss, To frame its summer nest. Warmer is each successive sky,. More soft the breezes pass, The maples gems of crimson lie lIJpon the thick green grass. The dogwood sheds its clusters white, The birch has droppd its tassels slight Cowslips are round the nh, The thresher whistles in the glen, Flutters around the warbling wren, And swamps have voices shrill. A simultaneous burst of leaves Has clothed the forest now, A single days bright sunshine weaves This vivid gorgeous show. Masses of shade are cast beneath, The flowers are spread in varied wreath7 Night brings its soft sweet moon Morn wakes in mist, and twilight gray, Weeps its bright dew, and smiling May Melts blooming into June! ALFRED B. STREET. ~38. REThOSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE SOIJTU-AMERICAIN STATES. ( Concluded from page 492, vol. 1.) IN the last number, we brought our account of the States of Southern America, nener~ ily, down to 1829. The history of those States since that period, presents only a series of events whi h should be ubjects of humiliation and painful reflection o their inhabitants; they are, indeed, humfiatin5 to mankind, and are calculated to depress the hopes of those who desire to ee civil liberty established throughout the world. On reviewina the condition of those countries, we find in them, indu ry every where lang-uishin~, civilization certainly not advanci ~ and talents employed only for the grati cationof ambition or of avarice. Under such circumstances, the stren~th f a State is exhausted without bentlit to the mass of the people, and with little ad- vantage even to those who are the most eacer in the pursuit of their own interests. The revenues are small and limited, while the expenses are hounded only by the want of means or of credit, and an empty treasury is the consequence, which never fails to occasion discontent and disturbances, even amo g the mo~t enlightened and patriotic of nations. To be5in with Colombia While the Revolution was going on in Bolivia, which nded in the expulsion of Sucre and his Colombians, a Grand Convention, as it was called, convoked by Bolivar, was held at the town of Ocana, near the centre f New Granada. It was intended that this assembly should consist of eight hun- dred members; less than a tenth of that number, however, appeared, the people of ome diatricts not thiakin it expedient to cha 0e the constitution, those of others, considering the convention at best as an unnecessary formality, and the deputies lected bei g themselves, in many instances, afraid to venture their persons within he power of the Libe ator. Those who met, effected nothing but a declaration that the existing constitution was insufficient; a project for a new plan of government vas then submitted to them by one of Boliw rs partisans, hut after some discussion, everal of the deputies retired, and the others were dismissed by the President. Bolivar upon this, assumina the constitution of 1821 to be extinct of right, as it was in fact, quietly took possession of all the powers of the State, until a Constituent Con~ress could be assembled, which was summoned to mect at Bogota, on the second f J~ nuary, 1830. For the government of the country in the interim, he instituted certain forms, offices, and territorial divisions, doubtless intended to serve as models for those which he wished to have pe anently adopted; they were established by ~n Organi Decree, dated August twenty-seventh, 1828. Soon after the Liberator had thus assumed the entire direction of the Colombian Republic, a conspiracy was arran~ed against him-, in whicls several of the most pro- minent persons in the country took part. On th~ii,,ht of the twenty-sixth of Septem- her, a body of soldiery, which had been ~ained by the conspirators, attacked the palace of the President, at Bo ota; h via forced its sates, they ransacked the inte- rior in search of the object of their hatred, who escaped by a window, and took re- fuge under a nei a hboring bridge, where he lay i the water concealed for some time. The people, however, takin~ no part in the movement, the friends of the Liberator speedily rallied their forces, snd the conspirators were vanquished. Several of their chiefs were executed after summary process; others were banished from the Republi; - ad others a6ain were reserved, in order that their punishment might have a more alutary effect. Amon~ the latter, was the Vice President, Santander, who was proved to have been privy to the conspiracy, although it was equally clear that he had protested against any attempt upon the life of Bolivar. Santander was tried hi

~38. REThOSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE SOIJTU-AMERICAIN STATES. ( Concluded from page 492, vol. 1.) IN the last number, we brought our account of the States of Southern America, nener~ ily, down to 1829. The history of those States since that period, presents only a series of events whi h should be ubjects of humiliation and painful reflection o their inhabitants; they are, indeed, humfiatin5 to mankind, and are calculated to depress the hopes of those who desire to ee civil liberty established throughout the world. On reviewina the condition of those countries, we find in them, indu ry every where lang-uishin~, civilization certainly not advanci ~ and talents employed only for the grati cationof ambition or of avarice. Under such circumstances, the stren~th f a State is exhausted without bentlit to the mass of the people, and with little ad- vantage even to those who are the most eacer in the pursuit of their own interests. The revenues are small and limited, while the expenses are hounded only by the want of means or of credit, and an empty treasury is the consequence, which never fails to occasion discontent and disturbances, even amo g the mo~t enlightened and patriotic of nations. To be5in with Colombia While the Revolution was going on in Bolivia, which nded in the expulsion of Sucre and his Colombians, a Grand Convention, as it was called, convoked by Bolivar, was held at the town of Ocana, near the centre f New Granada. It was intended that this assembly should consist of eight hun- dred members; less than a tenth of that number, however, appeared, the people of ome diatricts not thiakin it expedient to cha 0e the constitution, those of others, considering the convention at best as an unnecessary formality, and the deputies lected bei g themselves, in many instances, afraid to venture their persons within he power of the Libe ator. Those who met, effected nothing but a declaration that the existing constitution was insufficient; a project for a new plan of government vas then submitted to them by one of Boliw rs partisans, hut after some discussion, everal of the deputies retired, and the others were dismissed by the President. Bolivar upon this, assumina the constitution of 1821 to be extinct of right, as it was in fact, quietly took possession of all the powers of the State, until a Constituent Con~ress could be assembled, which was summoned to mect at Bogota, on the second f J~ nuary, 1830. For the government of the country in the interim, he instituted certain forms, offices, and territorial divisions, doubtless intended to serve as models for those which he wished to have pe anently adopted; they were established by ~n Organi Decree, dated August twenty-seventh, 1828. Soon after the Liberator had thus assumed the entire direction of the Colombian Republic, a conspiracy was arran~ed against him-, in whicls several of the most pro- minent persons in the country took part. On th~ii,,ht of the twenty-sixth of Septem- her, a body of soldiery, which had been ~ained by the conspirators, attacked the palace of the President, at Bo ota; h via forced its sates, they ransacked the inte- rior in search of the object of their hatred, who escaped by a window, and took re- fuge under a nei a hboring bridge, where he lay i the water concealed for some time. The people, however, takin~ no part in the movement, the friends of the Liberator speedily rallied their forces, snd the conspirators were vanquished. Several of their chiefs were executed after summary process; others were banished from the Republi; - ad others a6ain were reserved, in order that their punishment might have a more alutary effect. Amon~ the latter, was the Vice President, Santander, who was proved to have been privy to the conspiracy, although it was equally clear that he had protested against any attempt upon the life of Bolivar. Santander was tried hi 100 Retrospective View of the [April. special commission, which condemned him to death; this sentence was, however~ d,an~ed into one of perpetual hanishment, and after having been kept, for nearly a year, in the dungeons of Carthagena, he was suffered to embark for Europe, wher~ he arrived in October, l8~9. The Constituent Con ress, summoned by Bolivar, met at Bogota, on the twenty- sixth of January, 1830. The utmost exertions had been made by the friends of th~ Liberator, to have persons returned who would be f vorable to his iews; the opinion8 prevalent in the country, upon aM points of ~overnment, were, however, so variou that it was soon fouod impossible to obtain a majority, steadily attached to any one plan. Some were in favor of a simple federal system; others of a confederacy of confederacies; others of a central government, armed with strong powers; others abain, weary of chan5es and revolutions, did not conceal their desire for a mu archy, with some E~ ropean prince on the throne. The fir~t subject submitted to the Congress, was one of moment. In November, of the preceding year, the Provinces formed from the old Captaincy-General of Caraccas, together with some of those of New Granada, solemnly resolved to secede from the Colombian Republic. General Paez, as in l8~26, pl ced himself at the head of the movement, and sent a deputation to Bogota to notify Bolivar, and the Congress, of the fact; the question submitted to the latter v as, whether they were to treat with the ceding Provinces, o~ to endeavor, by arms, to compel them to submit. After a long debate, it was determined that commissioners should be sent to Paez, in order to prevail on him to adopt a constitution which had been proposed, on base~ republican, popular, representative, elective, alternating and responsible ; at the same time forces were sent to the frontier to prevent farther secessions, which were anticipated. The Venezuelans, on their part, despatched commissioners to meet those of New GranL da; nothing, however, x as effected in their conferences, except an agreement, that New Granada mi~bt constitute itself into a separate State, as Vene- zuela had done, and that a confederacy might then be formed between the two. Notwithstanding this official admission of the disunion, the Congress made a last endeavor to reconcile the differences by a constitution, formed upon compromises,. which was signed and published, on the 29th of April. On the fourth of May fol- lowing, Senor Joachim Mosquera, was elected President of the Republic, hy th~ sine body, and General Domingo Caicedo, who received the next greatest number of votes, became the Vice President. Bolivar had declared that he should not serve if elected, and this abnegation of power, at least, was sineera; his frame, always delicate, had been broken down by fatigues and excitement, and he was anxious retire to Europe, in order that chan5e of air might, if possible, restore his energies. The Con a ress, therefore, while ab, tainin ~ from considering him as a candidate for the presidency, testified its respect for him by a Decree setting forth the grateful feel- ings of the country towards him, and assignin a him an income of thirty thousand dollars per annum, during his life. On the day after that, on which the last Colomhian constitution had been promul gated at Bogota, a Congress, representin~ the Provinces of Venezuek, met at Va- lencia, hy which a constitution for that State was also formed, and si ~ ned ,on the twentysecond of September. General Paez was immeditely after chosen Presi- dent; in 1835 he was succeeded by Don Jose Verges. Lastly, the territories of the ancient presidency of quito, and the adjacent portion of Peru, which had been attached to Colombia, separated themselves from that Re- public, and became an independent State, under the very proper appellation of Ecua- dor, or the Eqa. tor. Its Con~ress assemk~ed on the fourteenth of August, at Rio- bamba, and on the eleventh of the followi~,g month, published the constitution which subsisted until 1835. The first President was General Juan Jose Flores. General Sucre, who had been despatched from Bo~ota to Gnito, on the arrival of the news of the secession of this district, was assassinated at Pasto, on his way, in June, 1830. 183S.] South-Americam States. 101 The Colombian Republic was now reduced within the limits of New Granada. Its President, Mosquera, on assuming the duties of his office, found the treasury pty, the country in a most disturbed state, and the army clamorous for the resto- ation of Bolivar to the supreme power. In this condition of thin ~s, seein~ that his ~Litle was of no value, he resi5ned it on the fourth of September, and retired to th~ United States, where he resided for several years, highly respected by all who knew him. General Rafael Urdaneta thereupon ssumed the supreme command, and immedi- ately implored Bolivar to take upon himself the char~e of conductin~ the Govern- ment. The Liberator of Colombia and Peru was, however, now gradually sinking into the gra e; he had arrived at Cartha,,ena, in order to embark there for Europe, but bein~ too weak to undertake the voyage, he remained at that place until his death, which occurred on the seventeenth of December, 1830. Urdaneta endeavored to secure to him~elf the enjoyment of the power which he had thus assumed, by the aid of the military, and without reference to the will of the re- mainder of the natioi~. Geuerals Lopez and Obando, however, soon organized a force in opposition to him, a. d in support of the constitution of 1830. Gen ~d Caicedo, he Vice President elected by the Constituent Con5ress, placed himself at the head of their movement, and several actions took place between the forces of the rival chiefs, each of whom was designated as an insurgent by the other. At length acompromi~ was effected, in consequence of whicli Caicedo retained his powers, until a new Con- gress could be convened. A Constituent Convention summoned in consequence of this ~ reement, met at Bogota, on the twentieth of October, 1831; on the twenty-first of e followin~ month it issued a Declaration of the Independence of the Republic of New Granada, which was, at the same time, rendered responsible for its share of the debts of Colombia; and on the twenty-ninth of February, 1832, the constitution of that State, as now subsistina, was completed and solemnly proclaimed. On the ninth of March General Santa der was elected President, and General I~ nacio Marquez Vice President. The former was then in the United States, to which he had repaired from Europe in the winter of 1831; as soon as he received news of his appointment, he sailed for New Granada, landed at S nta Martha on the sixteenth of July, and on the seventh of October was inaugurated as the Chief Ma~istrate of the Republic. The three Republics into which Colombia had been thus divided, acknowledged the independence of each other, and mutually enga~ed to bear their respective por- tions of the debt, contracted during their union. The pportionment of this debt, however, was not an easy matter, and they had opportunities sufficient for quarrelling, if they pleased, on the subject of lienits. New Granada claimed all the territory an- ~iently attached to the kingdom of the same am e, during the Spanish suprem~cy. The inhabitants of some portion of this territory bordering on Venezuela, preferred belna attached to that State; and the Equ~ torians found other limits than those as- umed by New Granada, more conformable with nature, that is to say, with their own interests. With such views, General Flores, the President of Ecuador, in Au- aust, 1832, marched with an army into the Southern Provinces of New Granada, and havina beaten the troops of that Republic, occupied the territories in the name of hi~ own State. Gener, 1 Obando, however, the commander of the Grenadine forces in the South, soon brought him to terms, and a convention was, in consequence, signed between the two Governments on the eiahth of December, fixing definitively th. ines which were to separate the two countries. This onvention was after some time cerried into execution; we believe hoxvever, that no definitive arrangement had as yet been made between the three Republics, respectin~ the portions of the common ebt, for which e~ ch is to be answerable. Between Bolivia and Peru there was also a subject for contention. Bolivia, one of the finest countries in the world, and possessin~ some of the richest silver mines in Anieric; could have but little iaercours~ with other nations except by way of Peru. 102 Retrcspective Vieu of tiie~ FAliri The p~ rt of Bolivia borderin~ on the Pacific is a sandy desert, called Atac ma, el-- tending from the ocean to the chain of t Andes, in which there is but one harbour Cobija, a place almost destitute of fresh water. The northern part of this Republic. on the other hand, is separated from the sea only by a narrow tract belonjng to Peru, in which are several good port , especially Arica. Bolivia was anxiou to possess thir narrow tract,. which the Peruvians were7 of co rae, unwilli g to lose, as it gave them the control of the commerce of Bolivia. A war of Decrees was accordin5ly car- ried on, for some time, between the two countries. Peru levied transit dirties on al goods passing over h r territory, to nnd from Bolivia,.. by way of Arica. Bolivia. replied by declaring Cobija a free port; promising that water should be bin ght to it by aqueducts, that xvarebo~ ses should be erected there, a d that ev ry facility shoul be afforded for renderin, the place a depository for ,oods from all countries. Per retorted by removin,, her transit duties; and when Cobija had been in con quencri abandoned, she replace them. Bolivia, under the stron, and wise administration of President Santa Gina was however, daily becomin, in ger by the increase of its population,~and by the re- Irievement of its finances; while Peru wa loam5 ground in every way. In 1829, as we have seen,.Generai Gamarina was made President of Peru, in place of Lamar, and General La Fuente Vice President; their terms of office were to ex- pire on the commencement of 1834, and they were both by the constitutio ineligible, dunn, the s ceceding four years. Neither of them,however, wished to lose the power which he possessed. Gamarra prepared to retain his influence in the Govern- ment even though he should resign his title; lie nccordi ly put forward one of his. most devoted partisans, Gene ~al Bermudez, as candidate for the Presidency, it beind understood t t the Ex-President should retain the command of the army, which was. equivalent to the command of the State. They were all disappointed at the election, on the twentieth of Decem r, 1833; General Orbe5oso bein, then declared President, and Senor Sale ar Vice President. Gamarra feeling certain of the codp ration of the army, immediately prepa ed to dispute the will of the people, and the first measure proposed by him wasthe assassination of the successful candidate. Orbegoso,however,. omin5 aware of these plans, anticipated their execution, by seizing the fortress of CalIan, the Gibraltar of Peru, situated on the coast, twelve miles distant from Lime,,. the garrison of which he had gained. A civil war wa thus begun, which lasted du- ring nearly the whole of 1834; at length,.chiefly through the e ertions of Genera. Miller, a galls t Englishman, who had materially aided in the liberation of Peru, the authority of the elected President was established, and his principal opponents were driven from the country. T calm was of short duration, and was followed by a severe storm. The Ex-Vice Presider t, La Fuente, inta5inin that he had a strong party in Peru. returned from Chili in the beginnin, of 1835, and endeavored to effect a revolution his own favour. His attempt was, however, soon put down by the exertions~of Col, Salaverry, the commander of Callan, who was thereupon encouraged to place himself at the head of the State. Acco dingly, the garrison of Callao supporting his preten sions, he marched at its head upon Lima, which he quietly occupied on the twenty- third of February, 1835, the constituted authorities retiring or submitting at his approach. Salaverry proved to be a ruthless and fearless tyrant; elevated by the seldiery, and d pending solely upon them, he sacrificed all else to secure their attach- ment; their robberies, murders7 or extortions, were either openly encouraged by him,. or suffered to rei am unpunished, and the country was thus rende ed desolate. In this conjuncture Santa Gina interfered in favor of the re6stablishment of order Peru, which country he entered at the head of a stron, force in the sprin~ of 1835. On the thirteenth of August, near Yanacocha, he defeated Gamarra, who had re- turned and united his fortunes with those of Salaverry; and on the seventh of Febru- ary, 1836, he entirely destroyed the ower of the usurping tyrant, at Socabaya~ I 18381 South-Awierican States. 1o~ -this decisive action there were upwards of twelve hundred men killed on both sides; Salaverry was made prisoner, and shot on the eiahteenth, and his small squadron ~avin~ afterwards sub ~itted, Orbe0oso was restored to the office from which he ~ad been expelled. Santa Cruz, however, was not entirely disinterested in these proceedin~s. Soon after the restoration of peace, a convention of deputies from the Southern Provinces of Peru, was held at Sicuani, by which body those Provinces were, on the seven- teenth of March, declared to constitute a seperate and independent State, under the tle of South Peru. The direction of affairs being, at the same time, entrusted to General Santa Cruz, as Supreme Protector. Orbegoso was obliged to submit to this decision, and, in consequence, convened an assembly of Representatives of the remaining Provinces, at Lima, which declared the independence of North Peru. In the followin year the two Republics were united with Bolivia into one Confederacy, called, for the present, Pern-Bol vi , under the government of the Supreme Protector who now resides in Lima. These proceedings occasioned suspicions with reaard to tbe views of Santa Cruz, and they were increased by other circumstances. We have said in the former num- her, at pag~. 481, that upon the termination of a contest for the presidency of Chili, between Generals Prieto and Freyre, the latter had taken refute in Peru. He there assembled the malcontents of Chili, and of other countries, and having obtained two armed vessels at Callao, sailed from that port in July, 1836, with the view of restablisbina himself in his country. The Chilian Char~d dAffaires, at Lim -, hein~ informed of these preparations, endeavored to prevail on the Peruvian Govern- ment to interfere, and put an end to them; that Government, however, did not seem inclined to do so, and the Chilians asserted their belief that Freyre had been secretly snstiaated and aided by General Santa Crus. The expedition failed entirely; the crew of one of the vessels mutinied, and carried her into Valparaiso, where she was delivered up to the Chilian Government; the other vessel, with Freyre on board, reached the island of Chiloe, but was there soon after taken, and all the invaders were made prisoners. The Chilians either havina just grounds of complaint against Santa Cruz, or being ~uspicious with re~ard to his views in that quarter of the world, thought proper to declare a conviction that the Peru-Bolivian Government had acted unfairly towards them in this affair, and to demand satisfaction. At the same time, General Rosas, the Chief of Buenos Ayres, made a similar demand on Santa Cruz for some alleaed infraction of the rights of that State; the Supreme Protector, how- ever, refused to accede to the wishes of either complainant, and they accordingly prepared to make war on him in concert. This war has just terminated in favor of the party attacked; the Buenos Ayrean forces sent n.~ ainst Bolivia have been routed, and the Chilians, after landing about two thousand men near Arequipa, in South Peru, were surrounded by Santa Cruz, and forced to capitulate. A short time before this event, a revolution was attempted in Chili by a Colonel Vidaurre, famous for his turbulent disposition; it was principally directed against Diego Port les, the Minister of Foreign Relations and of the Interior, who has, for some time past, been the real director of the State. On the third of June, 1837, Portales was seized by Vidaurre, and a division of the troops whom he had prevailed a to join him, durin~ a re iew near Santia~o. As soon as the news reached that capital, General Blanco Encalada assembled the rem~ inder of the forces, attacked the insur~ents, defeated them entirely, and made prisoners of all their chiefs; Port les was, however, found dead on the field, where Vidaurre had caused him to be shot at the commencement of the action. The chiefs of the conspiracy were shot at Snof- ago on the fourth of July, and quiet was restored. The political history of the other States, formed out of the Spanish kin~dom of La Plata, during the last ten years, is, perhaps, less interestin~, or more revolting,. than that of any other portion of America. The que tionx ith re0ard to the adop~ 104 Retrospective I/few of tire [April, ion of federal, or of central institutions, a itated those countries with the utmost vio- ~ence. In 1833, Balcarce, the Governor of Buenos Ayres, resigned his situation, and as no one could he found to assume those perilous duties, the State was directed for some time by the President of theL ~.,, islature. At length General Rosas, the Chief of the Central or Unitarian Party, was appointed by the Legislature Captain-General of the Province, and provided with powers almost unlimited for an unlimited period. He for .. me time refused to accept the office; having bee , however, elected to it by the people in 1835, he assumed the command, which he has ever since preserved. The circumstances connected with the destruction of the settlement made by the Buenos Ayreans at the Falkland Islands, in 1831, should be here related. Those Islands, situated opposite the eastern entrance of Magellans Straits, appear to ave been first discovered by the British during the seventeenth century, and were lamed by them in honor of the gallant Lucius Cary Lord Faikland. The French like- wise claimed the rights consequent upon their discovery, which they asserted to have been made hy the navigators of St. Malo; and accordingly this group is always called Isles Miouines, by French ~eo~raphers. The Spaniards adopted their appel- lation of Mrelviseas, from the French, although they pretended that the islands had been known to them as the Islas de Patos, lou ~ before they had been visited by the sub- jects of any other nation. The French and English successively made settlements on these Islands durin~ the last century; the French settlement was withdrawn upon the remonstrance of the Spanish Government, and that made by the British was broken up by the Viceroy of Buenos Ayres, who sent a strona expedition there for the purpose, in June, 1770. Great Britain, upon this occasion, prepared for war, and the Spanish Government was obliged, by a special convention, to disavow the act of officer, and to replace the colonists at its own expense. The settlement was, how- ever, shortly after abandoned, and the Islands lon~ rem~ined desolate and unoccupied, common to the vessels of all nations. The Spanish writers pretend that this abandon- r ent was made in consequence of a secret stipulation to that effect in the Convention. The British Government, however, positively denies that any such engagement was made, and no proof of it has ever been adduced. The conduct to be observed by ch party with regard to these Islands, has been indeed clearly determined in the ~ixth article of the Convention between them, of October twenty-eight, 1790, where it is a~reed, with respect to the eastern and western coasts of South America, and to the islands adjacent, that no settlement shall be formed hereafter by the respective ubjects, in such parts of those coasts as are situated to the south of those parts of the ~~aine coasts, and of the islands adj~ cent, wisich are already occupied by Spain. Now Spain, in 1790, did not occupy a single spot within many degrees of latitude north of the Falkland islands. At len~th, in the month of June, 1821, Commodore Jewett, a native of Pennsylva- nia, in the service of Buenos Ayres, put into one of the many bays among the alkland Islands, of which he thou ht proper to take final possession in the name of his Government, courteously offerin~ to the commander of a British vessel then lyin~ there, all the facilities required by him dunn0 his stay. On the strength of this occupation, and as heirs to Spain, the Buenos Ayreans, in 1829, granted a com- fission to a German named Vernet, to form n establishment in those Islands, vest- in~ him, at the same time, with powers, as political and military governor, to collect duties, and to prevent the vessels of other countries from landing and fishin5, on the coasts as before. The British agent at Buenos Ayres, immediately protested against this assumption, which he considered as an invasion of the rights of Isis own Govevn- meat. Vernet, however, proceeded to establish himself on one of the Islands, where, in virtue of his oi cc, he thought proper, in 1831, to seize three American essels, to confiscate portions of their cargoes, and to imprison some of their crews. Mr. Slacum, the American Consul at Buenos Ayres, complained to the Government of these acts, which he justly viewed as outrages, and demanded redress. The 1S38.] South-American States. 105 Buenos Ayreans in reply, maintained that Vernet had not exceeded the commission which had heen le~ally bestowed on him, and the Consul accordingly submitted the affair to his own Government, as well as to the commander of its naval forces in the river of La Plata. The latter conceived it to be his duty to act without further in- structions in behalf of his countrymen, and the sloop of war Lexington, was accord- ingly despatched to the Falkland Islands for that purpose. She arrived off the place occupied by Vernet, on the thirty-first of December; on the followin~ day her com- mander, Captain Duncan, landed, took possession of the American vessels lying there under seizure, and of their cargoes which had been confiscated, and having broken up the whole establishment, brought away Vernet and his followers a~ pri- soners to the river La Plata. On the arrival of the Lexington in the Plata, some negotiations took place be- tween the Government of Buenos Ayres and Mr. Slacum, the result of which was the surrender of Vernet and the other prisoners to that Government, upon its re- sumin the responsibility for their proceedin6s. This was done on the sixteenth of February, and immediately afterwards the Government suspended all communications with the American Consul. A Chargd dAff~ ires was sent by the United States in the followin~ year to Buenos Ayres, to demand satisf~ ction from the Government of th~ t country, for this ille~al conduct of one of its agents against their citizens; he was met by a similar demand for satisf ction on the part of the Buenos Ayreans, on account of the hostili- ties committed by the commander of the Lexin ton, a ainst a territory belonging of right to their Republic. No compromise was possible, and after a fruitless correspond- ence, Mr. Baylies, the Chargd dAffaires, returned to the United States. Since that period there has been little official intercourse between the two Governments; the Buenos Ayreans frequently intimate their intention to send a minister to the United States for the purpose of settlina the affair; hut other circumstances have occurred which render it very improbable that they will ever do so. On the second of January, 1833, the British sloop of war Clio, appe~ red off Port Louis, the principal harbour on the Falkland Islands, and her commander quietly took possession of the group in the name of his Government. Thus have the Buenos Ayreans, by their folly and injustice, attracted to their very gates a power which will not probably abandon the important position thus taken, unless it should be found too expensive to maintain it. The islands are situated in latitude fifty-two south, they produce no wood, or other material, for fuel, and little, if any gr~ in, can be raised on them; under which civ- cnmstances, it will be difficult to keep up any establishment there. The right of the British to the possession of the ~roup, is based upon views of international l-w, the justice of which is by no means established. But in the imagi- nary government to which all nations are considered as subject, the will of the Exe- cutive is paramount over that of the Le~islature or of the Judiciary; and until some other nation shall be in a situation to dispute the claim of Great Britain to the dirco- tion of the maritime nfl irs of the world, it will be needless to discuss with her any questions pertainin~ to that department. The Cisplatine Republic, or Uru~uay, still subsists, though constantly disturbed by revolution. The first President, Fructuoso Rivera, havin been unsuccessful in an attack upon the Charruas, a fierce race of Indians inhabiting the fore s in the north, became unpopular, and an insurrection against him broke out at Montevideo, in July, 1832, headed by General Juan Antonio Lavalleja. After some time passed in petty con- flicts, the revolutionists ~vere dispersed, and Lavalleja took refuge in Brazil; here he raised a body of adventurers, with which be invaded Uruguay in 1834, and was a,, am defe~~ted by Rivera. In 1835, Piveras term of office having expired, Don Manuel Oribe was chosen to succeed hL , who, in order to restore the country to quiet, published a decree of general amnesty. This excited the indignation of the Retrospective View of the 106 April, friends of Rivera, who, headed by him, rose in arms against the Government, but were finally defeated and dispersed in September, 1836. Considerable jealousy exists between the Governments of this State and of Buenos Ayres; each appears to afford with pleasure an asylum to delinquents of every species fiyin0 from the other; and each is daily charged with fomentin,, conspiracies a~ ainst the independence of the other. Far in the interior, between the rivers Parana and Paraguay, is a State deriving its name from the latter stream, which has been for many years governed in the most absolute manner, by an old lawyer called Doctor Francia, as celebrated for the eccen- tricity as fnr the determination of his character. Very little is known of this country, as the policy of its ruler is to exclude all forcianers from the State, and to prevent those who enter it, as well as his own subjects, from leavin,, it. Its principal pro- duction is the herb or herbs from which is made the mattey, a beverage as much es- teemed by the inhabitants of La Piata and Chili, as tea is by the Chinese. The treasury of the Autocrat is said to be well filled. Ecu dor has had its share of internal disturbances. In 1834, when Flores was to quit the presidency, lie appealed to the army to support him in retainin~ the power. The people, however, were generally a~,ainst him, and in favor of a civilian, Don Vicente Rocafuerte, of Guayaquil. After some difficulties and contests, it was ae.reed that Rocafuerte should be President, arid Flores commander in chief of the forces. Rocafuerte is a mild and amiable man, of considerable intelligence; he pass- ed some time in the United States during 1823, 24, and devoted himself to the ex- amination of the political and moral institutions of the country. Subsequently, he resided for several years in London, as the representative of Mexico, dunn,, the presi- dency of Victoria, and was chosen to fill his present high situation soon after his re- turn to his native country. He has endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of things in Ecuador, and displayed considerable tact, as well as determination, in eluding the efforts made by the Governments of Chili and Buenos Ayres, to en~age him in their lea6ue a~ainst Santa Crux. New Granada has been, upon the whole, little disturbed dunn,, the last four years. It has, however, been twice threatened with foreign wars within that period; in 1834 on account of the illegal and violent proceedin,,s of the authorities of Cartha6ena, against M. Barrot, the French Consul at that place; and in 1836, on account of the arrest, condemnation, and imprisonment of an En,,lishm~ n, named Russel, while he was acting, temporarily, s the Consul of Great Britain at Panama. In each case the Government of New Granada was compelled to ubmit to mortifying terms, such as the payment of damages to the individuals asserted to have been unjustly treated, the displacement of constituted authorities, and public acknowledgments of misconduct on the part of those authorities. It is difficult to determine without en- tering into minute examinations of the cases, whether these proceedings of France. and of Great Britain are to be approved or not; those who maintain that the United States have no cause for complaint against Mexico at the present moment, would, of course, pronounce the conduct of the first named Governments overbearin,, and out- rageous, as the acts for which they thou6ht proper to chastise New Granada are far exceeded in violence and injustice, by many of those committed by Mexican autho- rities against the persons and property of the United States. On the first of March, 1837, General Santander retired from the presidency of New Granada, agreeably to the provisions of the Constitution, by which he is ren- dered ineligible for the four years im~ ediately folhoxvin, the expiration of his term of office; he was succeeded by Don Jose Igo cm de Marquez. Accordin,, to the report of the state of the treasury, made on that occasion, the finances of the Repub- lic were improving. Many attempts have been made by the Government, for some years past, to enga,,e the capitalists of foreign nations in aid of the construction f a canal or rail road, across the Isthmus of Paiiama. Of such projects, we merely take the liberty to say, that a ship canal is impracticable, and a rail road nearly so. 1838.] South-American States. 1o~ These assertions are fully authorised by the reports of the enbineers who have surveyed the Isthmus, for the purpose of ascertaining what could he done in this way; if any additional assurance could be needed it is to be found in the circumstance, that no moneyed man, or company, has ever been prevailed on to take any part in such an undertakin~. The Government of New Granada did, indeed, lately make two contracts; one for a rail road with a native of Pennsylvania, who had no funds c~r other grounds for undertakin~, it, than a commission from the Government of the United States to examine the country; and the other for a ship canal, with a French adventurer, calling himself the Baron de Thierry, and pretending to be King of New Zealand. In Venezuela General Paez remained as President until January twentieth, 1835, tn which year Dr. Jose Var~ as, a lawyer, was chosen to succeed him. The new President was, however, scarcely installed in office, when he was seized by a body of military men, and sent out of the country; General Paez was thea requested by the conspira- tors to resume his situation as President: he, however, refused, marched against them, defeated them, and completely overthrew them in the course of the year. Var- gas has not, however, resumed the Presidency, the duties of which have been sin~ performed by General Soublette, the Vice President. Of Central America, or Guatemala, we have little to say. By the last accounts, this country, rendered by the nature of its territory and climate almost inaccessible, is politically divided into States, between which there exists a slight bond of union in the foi s of a Federal Government. The seat of the Government, at present, is the city of Salvador. This country, likewise, aspires to the honors and advantaees consequent upon the opening of a passage for vessels through its territory, between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; the ph n, which has been long since proposed, is to render the waters of the river San Juan navigable frQm its mouth in the Atlantic, to the lake of Nicara~ua, of which it is the outlet; and from that outlet, or the adjoining one of Leon, to cut a canal to the Pacific. This project is still more chimerical than that of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Before we continue our narration of events in Mexico, from the period at which our last accounts terminated, it is proper to correct a misstatement made in the pre- vious number. At page 489, it is stated that Mr. Poinsett, agreeably to directions from the Government of the United States, had proposed to that of Mexico, to pur- chase the country west of the Sabine from the latter, so as to fix the boundaries of that power on the Colorado or the Rio del Norte, and that this proposal had been r~ jected by the Mexicans. This is incorrect, the proposal was never made to the. Mexican Government by Mr. Poinsett. That gentleman, on the twelfth of January, I 8S, concluded a treaty with Mexico, by the terms of which, the limits between the two countries were to subsist as settled in the convention of February twenty-second, 1819. The ratifications of this treaty were to be exchanaed within four months after its date, and a commissioner and surveyor were to be appointed by both parties, to meet within one year at Natchitoches, for the purpose of markin~ down the line a~reed on. In order that the ratifications should be exchan~ed, the treaty must, by the Mexican constitution, have received the as cot of both Houses of the Mexican Congress; and by the Constitution of the United States, it should have been approved by their Senate. The Mexican Executive submitted the treaty to their House of Representatives, by which it was immediately approved; after this, however, for reasons which it is unnecessary here to examine, it was not presented to the Senate of that country until the end of April, when the four months were nearly terminated. Of course it could not receive the ratification of the Government of the United States within the prescribed period; and indeed the Mexican Minister at ~Vashington, did not present himself for that purpose, until the second of August. Nothin~ farther was concluded between the two Governments until the fifth of April, 1832, when this same treaty, together with an additional article, flxin~ anew the periods for the 108 Retrospective View of tire [April, exchange of the ratifications, and for the meeting of the persons to mark out the line of boundary, having been completely and definitively confirmed on both sides, was signed at Washington by the President and Secretary of State of the United States. On the same day, was also finally adjusted a treaty of amity, commerce, and naviga- t.inn, between those powers, to be in force for eight years after that date. The latter treaty has continued in force ever since its conclusion. The treaty of limits, however, nas never been executed; no commissioner or surveyor, on the part of Mexico, has appeared at Natchitoches to mark the boundary between the two Republics, notwith- standina a second additional article, prolon~in~ the period for such proceedings, was signed at ~~ashin~ton, on the third of April, 1835; and a declaration still farther extendin~ that period was made by the Secretary of State of the United States and Don M. E. Gorostiza, the Mexican Envoy at Washington, on the eighteenth of April, 1833. Circumstances have, in the mean time occurred, which render it proba- ble that the treaty of limits will become a dead letter, so far as Mexico is concerned in it. On the first of April, 1529, General Guerrero commenced the exercise of his func- tions as President of the United Mexican States; General Anastasio Bustamente bein the Vice President. Guerrero entered upon his office while the country was not only distracted by civil commotions, but also threatened by foreign enemies. The Spaniards L d been, for some time, collecting troops and vessels of war at Havana, and circumstances daily rendered it more probable, that they were about to strike eome blow at Mexico; in order to prevent this, a small naval force was collected at Vera Crux, in 1828, and placed under the direction of Commodore David Porter, who had retired from the service of his own country. After considerable difficulties, Commodore Porter nOt to sea in the beginnin~ of 1829, and some actions took place between his vessels od those of the Spaniards, in one of which, on the fourteenth of February, the Mexican brig Guerrero was taken by the Spanish frigate Lealtad. But it soon became evident that the contest could not be maintained by Mexico oa the se. , as the treasury was unable to meet the necessities of even the small force already assembled; the vessels were, in consequence, laid up in July followin.., and their crews were diseharned. Commodore Porter hauled down his flag on the 28th of that month, and resigned his command, in which he was imitated by nearly all the foreign officers in the Mexican service. In the mean time, the Captain-General of Cuba, encouraged by his success on the sea, had despatched five thousand troops, from Havana, on board of transports, escort- ed by thirteen ships of war, to the Mexican coast. The land forces were commanded by General Isidore Barradas; Admiral Angel de In Berde being the chief of the squadron. This expedition arrived off the month of T. nipico river on the twenty- seventh of July, and the troops were landed without opposition on the following day. Some little resistance was made by the M~.xican g. rrison at Tampico, but that plac was occupied; and B. rradas soon after began his march into the interior, scattering proclamations before him, in which the Mexicans were invited to return under the protection of their lawful sovereign. Guerrero immediately called the Con~ress together, and obtained from them, by a small majority, the concession of powers, which, though e. tensive, were much more limited than those demanded. This first step having been taken, lie called out the militia, and levied contributions, not only upon the several States of the confederacy, but likewise upon individuals, according to the supposed amount of their fortune. While the President was thus preparing for the defence of the country, Santa Anna was nctin~ upon his own . uthority. As soon as he learnt that the Sp. niards had landed, he assembled all his forces at Vera Crux, obtained money and vessels as he could, and then embarking, with about nine thousand men from that port, lie reached Tampico on the nineteenth of Au~ust. Landina immediately, with about two thou- sand men, he attacked the small Spanish garrison left at New Tampico, (the town 1838.] South-American States. 109 now called Tarnpico,) and, after some hard fighting, got possession of the place. Barradas, who had advanced hut a small distance into the interior, haying been held in check by the Mexican General, Garza, immediately returned, and drove Santa Anna from his position without difficulty, after which, the two armies continued op- posite each other, and separated only by a river, for some days inactive; the Spaniards were expectin,,, or rather hoping, for reinforcements from Havana, while Santa Anna was afraid to attack them with his own troops alone; both parties were, moreover, sufferina from sickness and want of provisions. On the seventh of Sep.- tember, the troops sent by the Government fros, Mexico, arrived under the command of General Mier y Teran, and Barradas, completely surrounded, was summoned to surrender. While the negotiations were going on, a most violent hurricane took place, which, by forcina the waters of the river upwards, caused great injury to the Mexicans, and revived the hopes of the Spaniards. Santa Anna now found that farther delay might be ruinous to him, and accordingly, he ventured, on the tenth of September, to attack his enemys position; this brouaht Barradas again to a parley, and a convention was sianed between the two generals, by which the Spaniards a,,,reed to deliver up their arms and ammunition, and to quit the country. Such was the issue of the last attempt made by the Spaniards to regain their pos- sessions on the American continent; to Guerrero, at least, it proved fatal. He had used his dictatorial powers with but little moderation, and bad drawn on himself the hatred of the richer classes by his exactions; his enemies, thus increased in number, took dva~ tage of the popularity which Santa Anna had gained from his success at Tampico, in order to lower the merits of the President by contrast. Santa Anna was proclaimed by them as the saviour of his country, was called the hero of Tam- pico, & c., while Guerrero was char,,,ed with having opposed obstacles to the defeat of the Spaniards, by his tyranny and avarice. The State of Yucatan began the first formal opposition to the President, by a decree on the fourth of December, declaring its secession from the Republic; and soon after, General Bustamente, the Vice Presi- dent, raised the standard of war against him, at Jalapa, while Santa Anna was yet undecided. Guerrero hastily assembled some troops, at the head of which he quitted Mexico, in order to repress these movements. Scarcely had he departed, however, ere a revolution was effected in the capital in favor of the propositions made by Bus- tamente under the title of Plan of Jalapa; and a commission of government was established, acting agreeably to that Plan. Guerrero, deserted by his troops, was forced to resign, and Pedraxa being left out of the question, Bustamente assumed the office of President, with the assent, apparently, of the great mass of the population of the coun- try. Santa Anna for some reasons not clearly known, took no active part in the latter proceedin~,s, but remained at his stronghold, Vera Cruz, of which he was continued in the command. Loreazo de Zavala, and many other persons, attached to the party of the late President, retired to the United States. Bustamente remained in power nearly three years; during the whole of which period, civil wars were going on in various parts of the Republic. Guerrero con- tinned quiet, for a short time after his abdication, but he, at length, appeared in arms against the Government, in the country bordering on the Pacific, which had been the scene of his principal actions with the Spaniards. After a number of slight conflicts between his forces and those of the Government, commanded by General Bravo, Guerrero was defeated at Chilpanzingo, on the second of January, 1831; his troops were dispersed, and he himself became a wanderer, and an outlaw. Under these circumstances he reached Acapulco, where he embarked on board of a Genoese ves- sal, whose Captain, Pica Lu5,a, had received many favors from him during his days of prosperity. This wretch, however, who had promised to transport him to Europe, instead of so doing, carried him to the neighboring port of Guatulco, and delivered him up to the authorities on the twenty-third of January; he was thence removed to 110 Retrospective View of the [April, the city of Oaxaca, where he was tried hy a military commission, and condemned to death as a traitor. On the fourteenth of February, he was shot at Cuilapa, a town near Oaxaca. Thus perished the most gallant chieftain of the Mexican revo. lution, the victim of ill-directed ambition on his own part, and of envy and malice on that of his enemies. His most deadly foe was Don Lucas Alaman, the Secre- tary of State, under Bustamentes administration, who is said to have arran~,ed the treacherous proceedings of the Italian sea-captain, and to have rewarded the villainy by a present of not less than fifty thousand dollars. After the death of Guerrero the opposition to the Government was maintained throu~hout 1831, by General Alvarez, and other chiefs in the South dunn_ the fol- lowina year, however, another revolution was effected, at a greater cost of blood and treasure, than those by which Guerrero and Bustamente had been successively raised to power. On the third of January, 1832, Santa Anna, supported by the 0arrisons of Vera Cruz, and of the castle of Ulua, declared against the existing Government; and soon after, General Moctezuma, the Commandant of Tampico, with the troops at that place, followed his example. To repress these insurrections, the Government sent General Calderon a~,ainst Santa Anna, by whom the latter was defeated at Tolome, twenty miles from Vera Cruz, on the third of March, and then besei~ed in Vera Crux. General Teran, who had been despatched from Mexico a~,ainst Mocte- zuma, was less successful, and was, in the end, forced to retire to the capital. Santa Aana, recruiting his forces during the summer, obliged Calderon to retreat, and, the insurgents daily increasing, the Government was at length induced to come to terms. A convention was signed at Zavaleta, near Puebla, on the twenty-third of December, by which Bustamente was to quit the country, and Pedraza was declared to have been duly elected in 18~28. This convention was carried into effect immediately; Bustamente embarked for France, and Pedraza, who had, in the meantime, arrived in Mexico, took his place as President. The term of Pedrazas presidency, according to the constitution, expired on the thirty-first of March, 1833, previous to which Santa Anna was elected to succeed him. The Vice President, chosen at the same time was Gomez Farms Valentin, a vio- lent opponent of Santa Anna, and a firm friend to the Federal System, which that General had shown a strong inclination to overthrow. In the Congress of 1833, 34, there was a strong majority in favor of the views of Farias, and decrees were ac- cordingly passed or proposed, calculated to support that system, and to abridge the powers of the church and the aristocracy. Santa Anna opposed the passage of such laws for some time, and at length began to hint that he would employ force to counter- act the views of the reformers; the Conbress thereupon, considering the liberty of its discussions invaded; suspended its sessions on the fourteenth of May, 1834. Santa Anna immediately upon this, appealed to the people by a proclamation, settin,, forth his views for the preservation of liberty, religion, and order, in Mexico, all of which, as he pretended, were threatened by the violence of the Vice President, and his tyran- nical majority in the Legislature. The minds of the people havin,, been duly prepared by this address, a Proeucxcia- mento was effected at Cuernavaca, a large town not far from the capital, on the twenty- fifth of May. The Plan proposed wasthat the late laws against the church, and those for the banishment of individuals who acted against the Federal System, should be declared voidthat the actual Conjess should be dismissed, and another he con- vened, the members of which, should he furnished with powers to reor,, anize the system of ,,overnmentand that the President should be sustained in carrying into execution the views which he had manifested. The plan of Cuernavacct was adopted almost universally, and the Congress was virtually dissolved by prorogations. The new Congress met on the first of January, 1835, nearly all the members coming provided with instructions from their constituents, or from the legislatures of their States, to the effect that the constitution might, and should be altered according to the 1838.] South-American States. 111 will of the body convened. The first act of this Congress was to declare the Vice President, Gomez Farias incapable of remaining in office, and he was accordingly obliged to retire to New Orleans, where he still resides; then came the discussions as to how far, and by whom, the existing forni of Government might be chan~,ed; these questions were determined by a decree of the Congress, to the effect that itself possessed full power to alter the constitution in every point which did not affect the maintenance of the Republican System, of the Roman Catholic Reli8ion, the liberty of the press, and the independence of the country. In the mean time, the legislatures of nearly all the States were declaring in favor of the reorganization of the system of Government. Yucatan, which had remained, since 1829, separated from the Republic, was re-united, and pronounced itself ready to abide by the result of the deliberations of the general Conaress. The le~.,islatur~ of Coahuila and Texas, however, was opposed to a change, and was thereupon dis- missed by General Cos, the military commandant, in April, 1835. The State of Zacatecas, in which are situated some of the richest and most productive mines in the Republic, also appeared to be averse to the overthrow of the Federal System, and its deputies to the Congress were instructed accordingly. The Coobress replied by declaring Zacatecas in rebellion; Santa Anna marched against it with a strong force, defeated the rebels in a bloody battle, on the eleventh of May, near the capital of the State, and reduced them to submission. After this, all public opposition ceased, except on the part of General Bravo, who had, for some personal reason or other, placed himself at the head of an armed force against the Government, in the South. The expression of opinions being thus put down, the Congress proceeded in it~ labors. By a decree dated October third, the legislatures of the several States were ordered to cease from the exercise of their functions; their places being subsequently supplied by Juntas of Administration, and the States becoming Departments of the Mexican Republic, one and indivisible. In the course of 1835 and 1836, other con stitutional laws, as they are termed, were passed, and the form of Government was settled, as it now subsists. Of this system, we shall merely say that the executive power is lodged in the hands of a President, elected for ci ht years; the legislature is composed of a House of De- puties, and a Senate, the latter chosen in a very complicated manner; the judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, and of a high court in each department, with inferior tribunals. In addition to these branches of government, there is a Supreme Conserva- tive Power, which may revise and annul nearly all the proceedin~s of the other branches; this body consists of five members, who are accountable only to God and to public opinion. The whole system is arranged in a manner so intricate, and there are such a number of checks upon power, that it will be difficult for any officer to perform any duty without violating the constitution, or comm, into collision with some other authority. While the Legislature was thus remodelling the constitution, a small number of persons from the United States, who had settled in Texas, aided by some adventurers from their mother country, were separating that extensive and valuable territory from the Mexican Republic. The invasion of Texas by the Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the beginnin~ of 1836, their march to the San Jacinto, and their signal defeat on its banks on the twenty-first of April, by half their number of the Texan adventurers, are circumstances which we cannot now relate; they may, perhaps, hereafter form the subjects of a separate narrative in this Review. Nor can we, at present, advert to the difficulties between the United States and Mexico, or between the latter coun- try and France, farther than to state, that from present appearances there is little prospect of a speedy adjustment of the difficulties in either case. By the last accouxas Baron Deffaudis, the French Minister in Mexico, was preparing to sail from Vera 112 Biography of Edward Livingston. [April, Cruz, and a French squadron was said to be on its way to the Gulf, for the purpose of enforcing the demands of that Government. Soon after the completion of the constitution, General Anastasio Bustamente, who had been residing in Europe since his expulsion in 1832, and who had, a short time before, returned to Mexico, was elected, with but little opposition, to the presidency ~f the Republic; he entered upon his duties in May, 1837. He is a man of vigour imd determination, and it is said has profited much by his late residence in Europe. He has before him an arduous task; much to reform, much to destroy, much to build up, and many conflicting opinions to reconcile. Whether he will prove equal to this remains to be seen. We will venture to express a belief that he will not, and that without pretending to any extraordinary degree of political foresight. Every thing in Mexico portends a dismemberment of the Republic. The western portion coni- prising the departments of Sonora ~nd Sinaloa have already seceded; the northern territories of New California and New Mexico, are held by the slightest possible tenure, and Yucatan is wavering. We must now close this series of papers, rather abruptly, we confess. We have taken pains to state facts with clearness and preci- sion, although frequently, with so much conciseness, as to lay ourselves open to the charge of obscurity. In our future numbers, we shall, from time to time, present views of what is goin~ on in those countries, so as to form a connected narrative of their proceedin~s. Being anxious that these sketches should be purely historical, we have avoided as far as possible, allusions either personal or national. We have ventured, in many instances, to condemn, but never without presenting facts which, in our opinion, af- ford ample bases for the condemnation. With these views we have purposely defer- red the examination of questions pending between the United States and the Southern Republics, confining ourselves in such cases to mere statements of the circumstances as clearly established and admitted by all parties. BIOGRAPHY OF EDWARD LIVINGSTON. BY MIGNET. We are enabled to state as certain, that M. Mignet, the author of the classical his- tory of the French Revolution, has been appointed by the Academie Royale, of Paris, to prepare a biography of its late associate, the Hon. Edward Livingston. The character and capacity of M. Mignet are such as to assure us that this task will be satisfactorily performed; he was a familiar inmate of Mr. Livingstons house during the residence of the latter gentleman in Paris, and has entered into correspondence with many persons in this country, in order to procure materials for the proper exe- cution of his work. We announce these circumstances with mingled feelings of pain and pleasure. We rejoice that the life and labors of our distinguished statesman and jurist will be thus commemorated, while at the same time we lament that it should be left to for- eigners in a foreign land to erect the monument. Livingston, however, belongs to the world. While engaged in ameliorating the political and moral institutions of his own country, he was, at the same time, presenting views and establishing principles by which the great family of mankind will profit. Those views and principles have long since engaged the attention of the enlightened classes in Europe, and hereafter, when they shall have been adopted there, they will probably come back to us under the sanction of a foreign name, and thus receive that respect to which they were at first entitled.

THE UNITED STATES MAGAZINE AND DEMOCRATIC REVIEW. Vol. IL MAY, 1S38. No. VI. THE TRUE PRINCIPLES OF COMMERCIAL BANKING. THE leading objection urged against the great reform principle which the Democratic party is struggling to establish, by the divorce of the fatal connection between Bank and State, is, that it is a measure of hostility to banks, to credit, and to commerce. This is the cry with which we are met at the very outset of the path of inquiry, and which is made to conjure up the most fright- ful spectral monsters of ruin and dismay. It is in vain that the friends of this truly wise, safe, and necessary reform protest against so utterly gratuitous an assumption of designs having an existence only in the imaginations of panic-making politicians, and their panic.-stricken followers. It is in vain that the charge is met and put to shame a thousand times. It is in vain that the circle of the argument is travelled round again and again, and proved perfect on every point, in all its bearings, while every tangible objection is repelled. Still its opponents, though con- stantly refuted, are never silenced, and still this panic cry is raised, and repeated by the thousand echoes of a partisan press. We propose in the present article to present a plain view of the subject addressed especially to the friends of commercial banking and ~commercial credit; and trust that no one, who will permit his ex- cited party passions and panic to yield for a while to a calm reflec- tion upon the true principles and objects of banking, will hereafter hesitate to ascribe the present chaotic condition of the currency and the exchanges of the country to their one true and only source. We leave out of view entirely in this article the question of the currency, in the points of view adverted to by us in former num- hers; and acquiescing in the existence and use of paper-money for a circulating medium as a fact, desire to prove even to its peculiar friends and advocatesat least to the honest and sincerethat an enlightened regard to the true principles of their own theory ought VOL. H. NO. VI. H 114 The True Principtcr of (Jonimercial Banking. [M~ay, to direct their efforts to precisely the policy of the Independent Treasury Scheme for which they now so bitterly denounce the Administration. According to the most distinguished writers on this subject, com- mercial banks should, in making loans or discounts based on depo- sites and circulation, confine themselves to business paper having but a short time to run, and never grant an extension of such loans or discounts. As they express it, the proper business of a bank is not to lend capital, but to lend credit not to furnish the trader with sufficient means to carry on his business independently of other resources, but simply to enable him to anticipate the proceeds of his sales, by making advances to him to supply the place of such portion of his own capital as he has parted with by selling on credit. If a bank discounts nothing but business paper, the notes it issues represent the notes it discounts, and the notes it discounts represent the commodities, or the value of the commodities, which the merchant has bought or sold. Let these commodities be flour, sugar, cotton, tobacco, or any thing else, they form a fund by which the merchant may, in due season, pay the note discounted by the bank, and thereby enable the bank to redeem its issues. So long as banks observe this rule; they cannot-, according tothis theory, make issues to excess; for the accommodations they grant are exactly adapted to the commercial business of the country, in- creasing as it increases, and diminishing as it diminishes. The exact proportion of currency to commodities is preserved, no matter what may be the fluctuations of commerce. So long, moreover, as banks observe this rule, domestic exchanges cannot be thrown into confusion. If the trade between different parts of the country were reduced to mere barter, (both money and credit being excluded therefrom,) it is self-evident that exchanges would be regular, for no part of the country would part with com- modities, except on receiving commodities of equal value in return.. Equally regular would be the exchanges, if, instead of being carried on by mere barter of commodities, they should be carried on by the medium of paper which should be the exact representative of the value of those commodities. But let banks make issues to enable their customers to pay taxes,. and they introduce disorder into both currency and exchanges. In such cases their paper is not the representative of commodities, and no specific fund is provided for its redemption. The banks are ac.- commodating, not the wants of commerce, but, in an indirect way, the wants of Government. The issues of the banks no longer adapt themselves to the trade of the country, expanding as it in- creases, and contracting as it diminishes, but expanding and con- tracting according to the demand for public revenue. The founda- tion is also laid for confusion in exchanges. While the banks 1S38.] The True Principles of Commercial B~nking. 116 restricted themselves to discounting business paper, the exchanges of commodities by different parts of the country afforded effectual means of equalizing the exchanges of bank notes which were the mere representatives of the value of these commodities. But there are no commodities to represent bank notes issued for the payment of public revenue; and Government does not, in its disbursements, pay out bank notes in the place to which they would find their way in the natural course of trade, but, very probably, in the points direct- ly opposite. It is hardly nece sary to say, that, when Government receives banks notes in payment of public dues, bank notes will be issued to an amount sufficient to supply the demand. It mat- ters not what particular form bank loans may then assume. It is plain that, in such cases, bank issues exceed what the commercial wants of the community require, and go to supply its wants for other objects. If the banks issue notes for the purchase and improvement of real estate, they may disorder currency and exchanges as much as by issuing notes for the payment of taxes. In such cases, their notes are indeed the representatives of commodities, but not of commodities which can be advantageously sold in time to enable borrowers to repay what has been lent to them, and thus enable the banks to meet their engagements. In some parts of the country the banks may be under the necessity of redeeming the aggregate amount of their issues once in three months, in others in a shorter, and in others in a longer, period. But it would be but a poor ac- commodation~ to the purchaser of a cotton plantation in Mississip- pi, to be obliged to repay his loan before he could carry his first crop to market; or the builder of a palace in New York to refund what he had borrowed, before his wife had had an opportunity of giving her first soir6e in her splendid habitation. Yet if the banks of Mississippi will, in addition to making issues sufficient to circu- late the annual produce of the soil, also make issues equal to the amount of real estate thrown into market, exchanges will be wofully against Mississippi. Part of these excessive issues will find their way to New York and Philadelphia, but the land cannot be exported in order to redeem them. The same remarks will, mutatis mutczn- dis, apply to the New York banks, if they will make loans to peo- ple wherewithal to build palaces at New Brighton. Here it is proper to enforce the remark that these strict rules ap- ply only to the credit dealings of the banks, or to such of their operations as are based on their circulation and deposites. It is of little moment, in regard to the particular point which we are now considering, in what way what is called the capital of a bank is in- vested, provided that, in its credit dealings, it confines itself to dis- counting business paper having but a short time to run, and makes it an inflexible rule never to grant a renewal. The whole of the 116 The True Priuciple~ of ~Jornmercfal Bankiug. [May, original capital of a bank may be lent to Government as has been done by the Bank of England-~-.or it may be invested in real estate or in bonds and mortgagesor lent on accommodation-notes of long dates, renewable forever-or simply represented by the stock notes of the original subscribers. So long as the loans and dis- counts of a hank do not exceed the capital paid in, no evil is done~ even if the whole be invested in stock-notes. The danger com- mences in those operations which are based on deposites and circu- lation, and it is to these that our remarks especially refer. Particular cases will serve to elucidate the principles of con-imer- cial banking, and show the difference between it and other kinds of banking. We shall suppose the reader to be acquainted with the mode in which, when banks are introduced into a country, their paper is made to supply the place of the specie previously in circulation: and we shall not stop to inquire whether the new distribution of capital thus effected is that which is most advantageous to the com- munity, or precisely equitable in all its aspects. We will take the system as established, and select a single bank in the interior of Maryland to illustrate its operations. A miller at or near Hagerstown, has wheat offered to him by the neighbouring farmers, say of the value of one thousand dollars. He has no cash on hand wherewith to make the purchase, but he has a note, bill, or acceptance, for one thousand dollars, given to him by a factor at Baltimore, to whom he had made his last con- signment of flour, lie has this note or bill discounted by the bank, and with the proceeds purchases the wheat. The farmers take the hank notes, pay them out to the mechanics and traders with whom they have dealings; and the notes, after having circulated for a time in the neighbourhood of Hagerstown, at length reach Baltimore. They are, in all probability, carried to that city by the Hagerstown storekeepers, and exchanged for dry. goods and groceries. The merchants of Baltimore deposite them in the banks, and the bank of Hagerstown thus becomes debtor to the banks of Baltimore in the sum of one thousand dollars. But this is balanced by the note or bill of the flour factor for one thousand dollars which the Hagers- town hank had sent on for collection. The trade between Hagers- town and Baltimore is an exchange of flour for dry goods and groceries, and the value of the same is expressed in the note of hand or bill of exchange given by the Baltimore flour factor, and in the bank notes issued at Hagerstown, which form together the medium of that trade. This is what is called simply making advances, or affording facilities. The miller has a capital of his own invested in flour at Baltimore. But he cannot use this in the purchase of wheat at his mill door. The farmers do not want flour, or if they do, he has 117 183S.I Operatioit of Commercial Exchanges. it not at hand to supply them. But they want to make purchases from the storekeepers, and the circulating credit of the bank will serve their purposes. The bank has not lent capital to the miller, for it had none to lend, having previously invested in permanent securities all its original funds. It lends its credit, and it has a double security that the credit it lends will be sustained: first, in the flour at Baltimore, of the value of which the bill or note of the factor is the representative; and secondly, in the wheat purchased by the miller, of the value of which the notes issued by the lingers- town bank are the representatives. This is, throughout, a business transaction, and is in strict conformity with the principles of com- mercial banking. But take another cas . The miller wishes to make an addition to his mill, and for this purpose requires five thousand dollars. The bank lends him the amount on a note draxvn by an obliging friend and endorsed by himself. Here bank notes are issued, not as representatives of a value already existing, but of a value to be created by labour. Before that value can be created, that is, before the new mill can be brought to yield an income, the bank notes find their way, in the natural course of trade, to Baltimore. But there is no flour here now, as in the former case, to constitute a fund for the redemption of the notes. Even after the mill shall be completed, it cannot be transferred to Baltimore. Suppose fifty operations of this kind to take place, and it is evi- dent that the balance will be thrown greatly against Hagerstown. But a very few such operations will suffice to derange the course of exchanges. According to the theory of commercial banking, while banks discount all good business paper of short dates that is offered, and none other, the channels of circulation are always exactly full. But it is plain that when a vessel is full, a very few drops in addi- tion will cause the water to overflow. Let a bank have ten thou- ~and dollars in specie in its vaults, and a circulation of one hun- dred thousand dollars, being what is exactly adapted to the busi- ness wants of the community. Then let it tnake an addition of but ten per cent. to its circulation. Inconsiderable as this addition may seem, it may be sufficient to drain the bank of all its specie. Apply these principles to the banks in two more distant parts of our Union, say New York and Mississippi. The trade is much more round about than that between Hagerstown and Baltimore, but it is, in reality, founded on the same principles. Let us trace its regular course. A merchant from Natchez repairs to New York, and purchases one hundred thousand dollars worth of goods, giving his notes or bills for the same. The New York merchant has these notes or bills discounted by a bank, and with the proceeds purchases bills of exchange on England, through which he either pays an old debt 118 The True Jrinciples of Commercial Ba king. [May~ due in that country, or procure a fresh supply of foreign commodi.~ ties. The Mississippi merchant carries these goods to Natchez, and there disposes of them to the neighbouring planters, in expectation of being paid out of the growing crop of cotton. In due season he receives the cotton, and sends it to a factor at New Orleans. In the interval the notes or bills he gave to the New York merchant have been sent to the Planters Bank for collection. They are now due. He draws hills on the factor at New Orleans. The Planters Bank discounts these drafts, and with what he thus receives the Natchez merchant pays the notes or bills he gave to the New York jobber or importer. Here are still several acco uts unsettled. The N ew Orlcans factor is in debt to the Planters Bank at Natchez, and the Planters Bank is in debt to the Bank of America at New York. But the factor has, in the cotton consigned to him, the means of paying his debt to the bank at Natchez, and thereby enabling the latter to pay what it owes to the bank at New York. The factor ships the cotton to Liverpool and draws a bill of exchange on Eng- land, which bill he selL, and with the proceeds pays the New Or.~ leans agent of the Planters Bank, which agent we will suppose to be the Union Bank. The Bank of America at New York draws on the Planters Bank at Natchez; the latter draws on the Union flank of Louisiana in favor of the bank at New York; the Union Bank sends the foreign bill of exchange to New York; the Bank of America receives it there, and sells it to an importing merchant, who transmits it to Europe, perhaps, in payment for the very dry goods he had a year before sold to the Mississippi merchant. This may seem like a very complicated process of bill-drawing. But it is, in reality, a plain business transaction. The bills and drafts, in all cases, follow the course of the goods on which they are founded. The trade between Mississippi and England is an ex- change of cotton for dry goods and other products of British in- dustry. Mississippi carries on this trade chiefly through the medium of the two ports of New York and New Orleans. Through the former she makes her imports, through the latter her exports. All the notes given and the drafts drawn, are but the representatives of the goods received or the cotton sent. The trade, so far as it is carried on in this country, commences at New York, where the im- portation was made; and to that city, in order to liquidate accounts, niust the bill of exchange be sent which was founded on the exporta- tion made at N~w Orleans. This bill is forwarded to Liverpool. About the time it reaches that city, the cotton on which it is founded arrives; and thus the accounts between England and the United States are adjusted. If the principles of commercial banking are correct, it would seem that as long as these institutions confine themselves to real business transactions, there is little danger of either foreign or domestic ex 835.1 Derangement of Exchanges. 119 hanges being deranged. In addition to the operations of the Mis- sissippi banks, founded on goods received from New York, and cotton sent to New Orica s, there would be others founded on the business transactions of the citizens of Mississippi among them- selves. The is. nes of the banks resting on such transactions would furnish the local currency, and as no note would be issued but in consequence of a value already created, and adapt 4 to circulation, there could be no excess of issues; and while the currency of Mis- sissippi was thus kept at par at home, there could be no possibility of deranging it from abroad, so long as the exchange dealings of the banks should be based exclusively on goods received from other States, and products sent to other countries. But let the banks of Mississippi, in addition to loans to facilitate onci fide commercial operations, also make loans to enable indivi- duals to speculate in lands. Suppose a bank should, in addition to an advance of one hundred thousand dollars to a merchant, made in order to enable him to anticipate the proceeds of his cotton sent to New Orleans, also advance him one hundred thou and dollars to buy government lands. If we are rightly informed, such things have been done in Mississippi. This amount may not enter im- mediately into circulation, but it must do so sooner or later, whether the amount is deposited with the States, or paid out in the ordinary course of expenditure which the public service re- quires. Suppose that all the banks in Mississippi afford accom- inodations of this kind, and that the aggregate amount is several millions. In the course of trade, a portion of the excess will find ~ts way to New York, and then the rate of exchange, as measured by the price of bank notes, must be greatly against Mississippi, unless, indeed, the New York banks shall have made issues equally excessive to accommodate speculators in town lots, dealers in fancy stocks, and builders of fancy palaces. We may suppose all the banks in the country to act in this way, and those in the north, south, east and west, to be so nearly equal in their excess of issues, that, for a time, there is little variation from the ordinary rates of domestic exchange. But this cannot long con- tinue. The rise of prices caused by so general an excess, encourages importations, and discourages exportations. rrllough we have the finest and most extensive wheat lands of any country in the world, we cease to export and begin to import bread stuffs. This may for a time seem to do very well; but as we do not pay as promptly as we ought for part of what we import, our credit abroad begins to be affected. The course of foreign exchanges is turned against us. The merchants, to avoid paying heavy premiums on European bills4 export gold and silver. But hardly does the sum total amount to five million dollars, before our eight or nine hundred banks find they s~an bear no further drains. As if with one consent, they all stop 120 The True Principles of Commercial Banking. [May~ payment, and the eountry is exposed to all the evils, present and prospective, of an irredeemable paper currency. According to the theory of commercial banking, none of these evils would have come upon us if the banks had made no issues and granted no credits, except on real business transactions of short dates. If there are errors hi this theory we are not responsible for them, We take it as we find it. Objections have been brought against it, but what they are we need not now discuss. Our present object is not either to assail or to defend the theory of commercial banking, but simply to explain it, and to show the utter incompatibility of its principles with the reception of hank notes for public dues and pub- lie lands. When banks make issues for the payment of taxes, their notes are but a new emission of continental money, different from the old in form, but the same in substance. When banks make issues based on lands, what have we but the French assignat system over again? It is no wonder that currency and exchanges have, during the las fifty years, been in a state of confusion, for the history of most banks has been little more than a history of deviations from correct bank- ing usages In all, or nearly all countries, banks are, to a greater or less extent, fiscal machines, and every government makes them such when it receives bank notes in the payment of the public revenue.. The greater part of the paper-issuing banks on the continent of Europe, are, in a strict sense, government banks. So also is the Bank of England. Its chief business is that of exchanging exchequer bills for bank uiotes. In some years the whole of its advances ti merchants have not exceeded one or two millions sterling, while those of a private firm, that of Richardson, Overend & Co., have amounted to as much as twenty millions sterling. In our own country banking has never been conducted on purely~ commercial principles. The very commencement of the system with us placed it on a wrong foundation. / There is reason to believe that the wlto[e of the original capital of the Bank of North America was furnished by the Government. It is certain that its notes were received in peyment of taxes, and equally certain that thereby a greater demand was created for them than the mere purposes of commerce required. The supply was, of course, made to equal the tax-paying as well as the commercial demand; and the consequence was that the due proportion of cur- rency to commodities was not preserved. The abundance of bank issues excited the spirit of speculation. But as a large part of these issues were not based on commodities, the bank was, when the time for redeeming them arrived, forced to make a great and sudden pressure on the community, whereby an excitement was produce 1838.1 History of the Union of Bank and State. 121 which was near depriving the said bank of all future power to do either good or evil. The framers of the Federal Constitution intended that we should have a hard-money government; and the first revenue law passed seemed to be so framed as to carry this intention into effect. It declared explicitly that all duties imposed by the act should be paid in gold and silver coin only. Words could not make it more plain. But the first Secretary of the Treasury (strange as it may seem) construed these words so as to allow bank notes having not more than thirty days to run to be received in payment. His next proceeding was (without any authority from law) to deposite these notes in the banks, and leave the country without the independent treasury contemplated by the Constitution. He then proceeded to organize a bank with certificates of public debt for its capital; and by thus completing the union between Bank and State, exposed currency and credit to all the evils incident to derangements in our fiscal operations. This state of things lasted till the year 1811, when this union was dissolved by the expiration of the charter of the first United States Bank, but only that a new union might be formed with certain State Banks selected as depositories of the public funds. War was declared in 1812, and, in utter defiance of all correct principles of finance, attempts were made to carry it on by means of loans of bank notes, instead of drawing on the real resources of the country. The consequence was, that all the banks which made such loans were forced to suspend specie payments, and the very capacity of the Government to borrow in the regular way was ex- hausted in little more than two years, and when it had thus borrowed little more than forty-five million dollars, or little more than three per cent. per annum of what was then the gross income of the people. Then came peace, and a mode of financiering was adopted the main principle of which consisted in exchanging Treasury notes, many of which bore interest, for bank notes and bank credits which bore no interest. This admirable policy induced the banks still further to depreciate the currency by additional emissions; and though the Treasury was thus made to overflow, it overflowed with money, if money it might he called, which would answer the pur- poses of neither the Government nor the people. The evils of this state of things were intolerable; but instead of attempting to correct them by direct legislation, a new National Bank must be established with a paper capital, issuing paper re- ceivable in dues to government. Specie payments were then re- stored, but in such a way that the resumption was worse than the suspension. In 1821 the rates of exchange in the Middle States were brought 122 The True Principles of Commercial Banking. [May, into something like regularity, but as industry was prostrated and enterprize paralysed, there was no such increase of commodities as to require an increase of currency. The Bank of the United States, however, sought to find employment for its now, as was thought, well established credit, in a loan of four millions to Government. The consequence of this departure from true bank- ing principles was an excitement of the spirit of speculation, which was followed in the next year by fall of prices and numerous bank~ ruptcies. In 1824 the Bank of the United States repeated its error by making a loan of ten millions to Government, and this it really was which, in the next year, brought it and all the other banks in the country to the very verge of suspending specie payments. Since the year 1824 the Government has had little occasion to borrow. But it has paid off what it had previously borrowed, and a reference to the documents affixed to Mr. McDuffies and Mr. Claytons reports in 1832, will show that the operations of a bank in making paper loans to Government can hardly be more injurious to the community than are its operations in making repayments to the public creditors. The whole course of domestic exchanges has to be deranged, in order to concentrate funds at the points where the repayments are to be effected. What has occurred since the year 1832 must be too fresh in the minds of men to require us to go into detail. Different persons may entertain different opinions of the merits of particular mea- sures, but all must admit that the country would have escaped such evils as it is now suffering, if Bank and State had never been united. It will be difficult, if not impossible, to point to a single convul- sion in the money market from the year 1782 up to the year 183~, which, if it has not been caused, has not been increased, by this un- holy connection. In all circumstances, whether of peace or of ~var, whether the public revenue has been redundant or deficient, whether the banks employed have been Federal or State Banks, and whether they have lent to Government or paid off loans contracted by Go- vernmentthe improper connection of fiscal and commercial trans. actions has proved injurious to either the Banks or the Government, and in some instances to both. If the connection be resumed, the history of the future will be only a repetition of the history of the past with such variations ~s may result from different combinations of circumstances. Fiscal operations and commercial banking operations are so distinct in their nature as to require for their proper management distinct modes of action. When a Government wants to borrow, it wants what Banks have it seldom in their power to lend. It does not want mere credit. It wants capital, and it generally wants it for a term of years,not for the short period which usually elapses be~ 1838.1 The Departure from the True Principles. 123 tween the time when bank notes are issued and when they are re- turned for redemption. Equally ill adapted, as we have already shown, is bank currency for supplying a public revenue. The notes issued for such an object are not based on commodities, and as the revenue of Government is collected in one part of the country and disbursed in another, no corresponding transfer of commodities takes place to balance exchanges. In the case of receipts for customs, the tax may be regarded as incorporated with the price of the imports; and in discounting a note to take up a duty bond, a bank may, perhaps, be said to be discounting a note representing a commodity which may be sold in time to redeem the note discounted, and, thereby, the note issued. But in furnishing a medium for the payment of postages and other public dues, the banks make issues which are clearly not based on any proper banking principles. In making issues for the purchase of public lands, they must, if they proceed therein to any great extent, utterly derange the whole course of exchanges. Each of the western and southwestern States produces commodities for export barely sufficient to balance its commercial accounts with the Atlan- tic States and with Europe. There being no commodities to form a basis for further exchanges, attempts to transfer, by means of Government drafts, such sums as are collected in western bank paper to such places as the public service requires, must inevitably derange both currency and exchanges. If the eastern banks, as well as the western, issue notes for the purchase of puhlic lands and other land speculations, they may for a time balance the excess of paper in the Mississippi valley, by an excess on this side of the Alleghanies; but such an excess cannot continue long, without turning foreign exchanges against us. Gold and silver then leave the country, and the promises of the banks to pay on demand prove utterly delusive. Notes issued for the payment of taxes are, as we have already said, but a new emission of Continental money, differing from the old in form, but not in substance. Their being issued hy corpora~ tions, and all the profits of the issues going to corporations, does not change their nature. As no particular commodities are pledged for their redemption, their value is kept up wholly by taxation; and if our public expenditures should eKceed our public receipts as much as they did in certain periods of the Revolutionary war, our new Continental money would soon fall to a level with the old. To many minds this may not he apparent, because the whole of our banks have been engaged in the double business of furnishing cur~ rency for commercial purposes, and currency for fiscal objects; but let these two functions, distinct in themselves, be divided between two set of banks, and every one must see that the currency supplied by one set of these banks would rest on the same principles as the 124 The True Principles of Commercial Banking. [May, old Continental currency, and be liable to depreciation from the same causes. If any find it difficult to discover that another portion of our bank currency has rested on the same principles as the French assignats, it can only be because the matter has been so cunningly managed with us as to give all the profits to corporations. The value of the French assignats was based on the public land, which was the only fund provided for their redemption. The value of much of our bank paper has rested on no better foundation. No other proper- ty than the public land bas, in many an instance, been represented by either the notes discounted or the notes issued. And after the title to the land had, by banking operations, been transferred from the public to speculators, there was no other fund tban this same land for the redemption of the notes thus added to the circulation. Such a currency is identical in its nature with the French assignat currency. Giving all the profit of it to corporations does not change its essential character. Very different is the currency created by banks conducted on purely commercial principles. This is always based on commodi- ties the demand for which is so constant as to insure the prompt redemption of their paper representatives. - It would also seem to have within itself a self-regulating principle by which the true proportion betxveen currency and commodities might be preserved. Whatever objections could, on other grounds, be brought against such banks, they could not be justly accused of deranging ex~ changes. Banks conducted on purely commercial principles would be very profitable. Their xvhole capital might be invested in permanent securities; for, after being a short time in operation, the whole spare cash of the community would be deposited with them and constitute a fund quite sufficient to support their current credit. From the capital invested in permanent securities, they would derive the ordinary profits of stock, and what should accrue from the use of their current credit would be so much extra gain. All such of the product of our land and labour as enters into whole- sale trade, would, either directly or indirectly, be the subject of their operations and become a pIed~,e for the redemption of their issues. No portion of it could pass from the producer to tbe wholesale dealer and thence to the consumer, without the interven- tion, in some stage of its progress, of bank credit in some form, and where bank credit is used somebody must pay for it. The aggregate income thus realised would be many millions per annum, and many millions per annum ought to be esteemed quite a suffi~ cient reward for simply furnishing paper representatives of the value of commodities, and balancing exchange accounts between different parts of the Union. 1838.] The Departure from the True Principles. 1~5 But if our banks, not content with the legitimate profits of their trade, will insist on making emissions identical in principle with the Continental money, and other emissions identical in principle with the French assignats, they must expect all the regular opera- tions of their trade to become deranged, and if they gain in one way, to lose quite as much in another. They cannot blend the three distinct functions of commercial banks, government banks, and land banks, and preserve the due proportion of currency to commodities. Their enormous expansions will be followed by as enormous contractions,each detrimental to the regular progress of wealth, and to safe and regular business, and consequently to the profits of regular banking. The irregularity of movement imparted to our banking operations by the reception of bank notes in payment of taxes, would seem to be not very considerable. As the revenue the government derives from proper taxation, including therein the customs, is seldom more than twenty millions a year, it does not, by receiving bank notes in payment of these dues, give a direct stimulus to bank issues beyond this extent; and as this revenue is received and paid away in differ- ent seasons of the year, the amount thereby added to the active circulation may seldom, at any one time, exceed five millions. But it should be recollected that, when, by discounting all the good business paper offered, the circulating medium is exactly adapted to the amount of things to be circulated, a very small addition to this circ dating medium may cause a great derangement of ex- changes, and render the whole system insecure. As shown in a former part of this article, a bank with specie in its vaults of the amount of ten thousand dollars, and paper in circulation of the amount of one hundred thousand dollars, and perfectly secure as long as these proportions are maintained, may, by adding only ten thousand dollars to its circulation, be compelled to suspend pay- ment. The receipt and disbursement, in bank notes, of a revenue only of twenty millions, may cause every thing to fluctuate where every thing might otherwise be comparatively stable. But whatever may be thought of the effect produced by the re- ception of bank notes in payment for duties, there can be no doubt as to the effect produced by the reception of them in the payment for public lands. Here there is no practical limit,or at least no limit till we reach the Pacific Ocean. If these lands were the property of a private citizen, he would naturally raise the price as the demand for them increased, and thus limit the sales. But the price of our public land is fixed by law, and remains unchanged, when, by ex~ cessive issues of paper, the price of every thing else is doubled. To the public lands, then, the attention of speculators is specially directed, when the price of the produce of land is greatly enhanced. And the process of exchanging bales of paper for millions of acres 126 The True Principles of Commercial Banking. [May, of prairie and wood-land, is so very easy so very pleasing, and so very profitable, that, unless prevented by some extraneous cause, it may go on till the whole public domain be exchanged for bank promises. Had not certain measures of our own Government, combined with those of the Bank of England, interfered in 1836 with the operations of the land speculating spirit, the Mississippi scheme would not have stood entirely without a parallel in this new world of ours. That spirit now only slumbers and sleeps. Let, the re- union of Bank and State be effected, and it will awake up to renew- ed action. Again will it cause a redundant revenue, a general rise of prices, and a derangement of exchanges foreign and domestic, so that a general resumption of specie payments will only be fol- lowed by another suspension. It will be difficult to find an intelligent member of the banking interest who will not admit that the distinctions herein made between issues for commercial purposes, issues for the payment of taxes, and issues for the purchase of lands, are well founded. It is, there~ fore, a little surprising that the whole body of banks should desire, or seem to desire, a reunion with the Government. The connection, it may be admitted, might be advantageous to stock-jobbing banks, and land-speculation banks, but to commercial banks it cannot but prove injurious. If the reunion should be effected, it could take place directly with only twenty-five of the banks, yet the whole eight or nine hundred seem to be striving as if each expected to be one of the favored five and twenty. If any of them should accomplish an object which seems so dear to them all, they may find that no very great or permanent advan- tage will accrue from being fiscal agents while there is a deficiency of public revenue, and while currency and exchanges are all in con- fusion. They will be expected to bring all things into order. If they fail in this, the experiments will be pronounced a failure. f Some of those who were connected with the first two administra- tions of the United States Bank are still in the land of the living, and they can say whether they found an experiments of this kind, between the years 1817 and 1821, either very pleasing or very profitable. That the experiment of a reunion of Bank and State may effect the object intended, it will be necessary to clothe the favored five and twenty with a power over the other banks similar to that en- joyed by the United States Bank when it was fiscal agentthat is to say, with power to declare what bank notes shall, and what shall not, be received for public dues. This power must necessarily be given to them, as they will be required to credit as cash all notes so re- ceived. Many objections have been made (and we will not say 1838.1 The Independent Treczsury System. without reason) to leaving to public officers the power of discrimi. nation as to the kind of funds to be received for duties and lands; but it seems to be forgotten that this power of discrimination may be exercised much more injuriously in respect to the interests of rival institutions, when a part of these rival institutions are them- selves to hold the power. Unless they can make themselves cre- ditor banks, they will derive little advantage from their new vocation. The friends of what is popularly called the Sub-Treasury Sys- tem might (if its enemies so desire) well consent that the trial of it be deferred to some more convenient opportunity. Making trial of it now would be trying it under very disadvantageous circum- stancescircumstances very dIfferent from those under which the State Bank Deposite System commenced. Then every thing was prosperity, revenue abundant, the banks paying specie, and currency and exchanges as regular perhaps as it is possible for them to be with banks conducted on unsound principles. Now, the revenue is deficient, the banks have suspended payments, and currency and exchanges are in great disorder. The effects of the former suspen-. sion in 1814 can hardly be said to have been over, as regards all parts of the country, before 1829 or 1830. If we are to judge of the future by the past, the present suspension will be followed by calamities which it may be hard to bear, and difficulties which it may not be easy to surmount~ The same ingenuity that has dis- covered in advance ten thousand evils in the Sub-Treasury System will, when those calamities occur, attribute them to the odious Sub-Treasury, and not to inherent defects in our banking system, In which they all really originate. If the banks in any part of the country resume payment, the. Secretary of the Treasury will, as the law now stands, be required to select a certain number of them as depositories, provided, in his judgment, the public money will be safe in their custody. How is he to judge of their safety? If safe in one month, they may be very unsafe in another. Under this very law he selected eighty of what were then deemed the best banks in the country, and in less than one year they all suspended payment with between thirty and forty millions of the public money in their possession. It is now hoped that some of them will resume, but no one expects that all that re- sume will be able to sustain specie payments, especially when the resuming banks are threatened with the hostility of the powerful Pennsylvania Bank of the United States and its numerous allies. But supposing the Head of the Treasury Department to be able to satisfy himself of the perfect security as a public depository of one bank in each resuming State: then we shall have the anomalous spectacle of two fiscal systems for different parts of the same coun- try. In the resuming States, the public dues will be paid in bank 128 The True Principles of Commercial Banking. [May, paper which, though redeemable, may never be redeemed; and in the other States they will be paid in gold and silver. In one part of the country, bank credit will be the medium for paying public dues, and in the other, nothing but solid cash will be received; and this, while the Constitution declares that all duties, imposts, and ex~ cises shall be uniform throughout the United States. In one part of the country the public revenue will be entrusted to the care of corporations directly responsible only to the States which have created them; and in the other, left in charge of mere collecting and disbursing officers, in whose hands the laws as they now stand did not intend that the money should long remain. Take another supposition. Suppose the consideration of the Five and Twenty Bank Bill to be resumed, and suppose it to be passed. And suppose the Secretary of the Treasury to have made his selec~ tion, and to have submitted the same to Congress for its approval. Is it quite certain that political and pecuniary considerations will not induce some members to vote for the rejection of very good banks, and for the employment of very bad banks? And how can we assure ourselves that arguments stronger than mere words will not be used to influence the votes of the members, when many of them stand so much in need of money, and the banks have so much money to bestow? We hear much of the evils of Executive Pa- tronage. Are no dangers to be apprehended from Legislative Pa~ tronage, especially when exercised in this very unusual and very objectionable waywhen exercised with the intent of giving to twenty-five banks the control of all the moneyed institutions in the country? For ourselves, we firmly believe the Sub-Treasury System to be the best, not only for ordinary times, but for the present exigen- cy :best for the banksbest for the governmentbest for the people. Its opponents say its very name is odious. Misconcep- tion, or, perhaps, misrepresentation, may have made it so to them. It can hardly be more odious than the name of Christian once was, or than, perhaps, with many, the name of Democrat now is. In its principles it is well founded, and if it should fail in practice, it could be only through defects of organization, or errors of ad- ministration. Difficulties may attend it the first few years, but these will be owing, not to the system itself, but to the confusion into which our financial affairs, our commerce, our currency, and our exchanges, have all been brought by our radically vicious bank- ing usages. The Sub-Treasury System is the system the fathers of the country had in contemplation when they framed the Constitution. If a fair trial is never to be given to it, it will only prove that there is in the country A POWER which is above the government, above the Con~ stitution, and above the people. 1838.] 129 TALES OF THE PROVINCE-HOUSE. No. I. HOWES MASQUERADE. By the Author of Twice Told Tales. ONE afternoon, last summer, while ~valking along Washington street, my eye was attracted by a sign-board protruding over a narroxv arch-way, nearly opposite the Old South Church. The sign represented the front of a stately edifice, which was desig- nated as the OLD PROVINCE-HOUSE, kept by Thomas Waite. I was glad to be thus reminded of a purpose, long entertained, of visiting and rambling over the mansion of the old royal governors of Massachusetts; and entering the arched passage, which pene- trated through tbe middle of a brick row of shops, a few steps transported me from the busy heart of modern Boston, into a small and secluded court-yard. One side of this space was occupied by the square front of the Province-House, three stories high, and surmounted by a cupola, on the top of which a gilded Indian was discernible, with his bow bent and his arrow on the string, as if aiming at the weathercock on the spire of the Old South. The figure has kept the attitude for seventy years or more, ever since good deacon Drowne, a cunning carver of wood, first stationed him on his ion:, sentinels watch over the city. The Province- House is constructed of brick, which seems recently to have been overlaid with a coat of light-colored paint. A flight of red free- stone steps, fenced in by a balustrade of curiously xvrought iron, ascends from the court-yard to the spacious porch, over which is a balcony, with an iron balustrade of similar pattern and workman- ship to that beneath. These letters and figures16 P. S. 79are wrought into the iron-work of the balcony, and probably express the (late of the edifice, with the initials of its founders name. A wide door with double leaves admitted me into the hall or entry, on the right of which is the entrance to the bar-room. It was in this apartment, I presume, that the ancient governors held their levees, with vice-regal pomp, surrounded by the military men, the counsellors, the judges, and other officers of the crown, while all the loyalty of the province thronged to do them honor. But the room, in its present condition, cannot boast even of faded magnificence. Tfhe panelled wainscot is covered with dingy paint, and acquires a duskier hue from the deep shadow into which the Province-House is thrown by the brick block that shuts it in from Washington street. A ray of sunshine never visits this apartment VOL. II. NO. VI. I

1838.] 129 TALES OF THE PROVINCE-HOUSE. No. I. HOWES MASQUERADE. By the Author of Twice Told Tales. ONE afternoon, last summer, while ~valking along Washington street, my eye was attracted by a sign-board protruding over a narroxv arch-way, nearly opposite the Old South Church. The sign represented the front of a stately edifice, which was desig- nated as the OLD PROVINCE-HOUSE, kept by Thomas Waite. I was glad to be thus reminded of a purpose, long entertained, of visiting and rambling over the mansion of the old royal governors of Massachusetts; and entering the arched passage, which pene- trated through tbe middle of a brick row of shops, a few steps transported me from the busy heart of modern Boston, into a small and secluded court-yard. One side of this space was occupied by the square front of the Province-House, three stories high, and surmounted by a cupola, on the top of which a gilded Indian was discernible, with his bow bent and his arrow on the string, as if aiming at the weathercock on the spire of the Old South. The figure has kept the attitude for seventy years or more, ever since good deacon Drowne, a cunning carver of wood, first stationed him on his ion:, sentinels watch over the city. The Province- House is constructed of brick, which seems recently to have been overlaid with a coat of light-colored paint. A flight of red free- stone steps, fenced in by a balustrade of curiously xvrought iron, ascends from the court-yard to the spacious porch, over which is a balcony, with an iron balustrade of similar pattern and workman- ship to that beneath. These letters and figures16 P. S. 79are wrought into the iron-work of the balcony, and probably express the (late of the edifice, with the initials of its founders name. A wide door with double leaves admitted me into the hall or entry, on the right of which is the entrance to the bar-room. It was in this apartment, I presume, that the ancient governors held their levees, with vice-regal pomp, surrounded by the military men, the counsellors, the judges, and other officers of the crown, while all the loyalty of the province thronged to do them honor. But the room, in its present condition, cannot boast even of faded magnificence. Tfhe panelled wainscot is covered with dingy paint, and acquires a duskier hue from the deep shadow into which the Province-House is thrown by the brick block that shuts it in from Washington street. A ray of sunshine never visits this apartment VOL. II. NO. VI. I 130 Tales of the Province-House.-.No. ~ [May,, any more than the glare of the festal torches, which have been extinguishe(l from the era of the revolution. The most venerable and ornamental object is chinrney-piece set ronad with Dutch tiles of blue-figured China, representing scenes from Scripture; an(l, for aught I know, the lady of Pownall or Bernard may have sate beside this fire-place, and told her children the story of each blue tile. A bar in modern style, well replenished with decanters,, l)ottles, cigar-boxes, and net-work bags of lemons, and provided with a beer-pump and a soda-fount, extends along one side of the room. At my entrance, an elderly person ~vas smacking his lips, with a zest which satisfied me that the cellars of the Province-House still hold good liquor, though doubtless of other vintages than were quaffed by the old governors. After sipping a glass of port-sanga- ree, prepared by the skilful hands of Mr. Thomas Waite, I besought that worthy successor and representative of so many historic per- sonages to conduct me over their time-honored mansion. lie readily complied; but, to confess the truth, I was forced to draw strenuously upon my imagination, in order to find aught that was interesting in a house which without its historic associations would have seemed merely such a tavern as is usually favored by the custom of decent city-boarders, and old fashioned country gen. tiemen. The chambers, which were probably spacious in former times, are now cut up by partitions and subdivided into little nooks, each affording scanty room for the narrow bed, and chair, and dressing-table, of a single lodger. The great staircase, how- ever, may be termed, without much hyperbole, a feature of gran- deur and magnificence. It winds through the midst of the house by flights of broad steps, each flight terminating in a square land- ing-place, whence the ascent is continued towards the cupola. A carved balustrade, freshly painted in the lower stories, but growing dingier as we ascend, borders the staircase with its quaintly t~visted and intertwined pillars, from top to bottom. Up these stairs the military boots, or perchance the gouty shoes of many a governor have trodden, as the wearers mounted to the cupola, which afforded them so wide a view over their metropolis and the surrounding country. The cupola is an octagon, with several windows, and a door opening upon the roof. From this station, as I pleased myself with imagining, Gage may have beheld his disastrous victory on Bunker-Hill, (unless one of the tn-mountains intervened,) and Howe have marked the approaches of Washingtons besieging army; although the buildings, since erected in the vicinity, have shut out almost every object, save the steeple of the Old South, which seems almost within arms length. Descending from the cupola, I paused in the garret to observe the l)on(lerous white-oak frame-work, so much more massive than the frames of modern houses, and thereby resembling an antique skeleton. The brick 1838.1 howes Masquerade. 131 walls, the materials of which were imported from Holland, and the timbers of the mansion, are still as sound as ever; but the floors and other interior parts being greatly decayed, it is con- templated to gut the whole, and build a new house within the ancient frame and brick-work. Among other inconveniences of the present edifice, mine host mentioned that any jar or motion was apt to shake down the dust of \ages out of the ceiling of one chamber upon the floor of that beneath it. We stepped forth from the great front window into the balcony, where, in old times, it was doubtless the custom of the Kings rep- resentative to show himself to a loyal populace, requiting their huzzas and tossed-up hats with stately bendings of his dignified person. In those days the front of the Province-House looked upon the street; and the whole site now occupied by the brick range of stores, as well as the present court-yard, was laid out in grass plays, overshadowed by trees and bordered by a wrought iron fence. Now, the old aristocratic edifice hides its time-worn visage behind an upstart modern building; at one of the hack windows I observed some pretty tailoresses, sewing, and chatting, and laughing, with now and then a careless glance towards the bal- cony. Descending thence, we again entered the bar-room, where the elderly gentleman above mentioned, the smack of whose lips had spoken so favorably for Mr. Waites good liquor, was still lounging in his chair. He seemed to be, if not a lodger, at least a familiar visiter of that house, who might be supposed to have his regular score at the bar, his summer seat at the open window, and his prescriptive corner at the winters fire-side. Being of a socia- ble aspect, I ventured to address him with a remark, calculated to draw forth his historical reminiscences, if any such were in his mind; and it gratified me to discover, that, between memory and tradition, the old gentleman was really possessed of some very pleasant gossip about the Province-House. The portion of his talk which chiefly interested me, was the outline of the following legend. He professed to have received it, at one or two removes, from an eye-witness; but this derivation, together with the lapse of time, must have afforded opportunities for many variations of the narrative; so that, despairing of literal and absolute truth, I have not scrupled to make such further changes as seemed condu- cive to the readers profit and delight. At one of the entertainments given at the Province-House, during the latter l)art of the siege of Boston, there passed a scene which has never yet been satisfactorily explained. The officers of the British army, and the loyal gentry of the province, most of whom were collected within the beleaguered town, had been invited to a rnasqued ball; for it was the policy of Sir William Howe to hide 132 Tales of the Province-Hoitse.No. I. [May7 the distress and danger of the period, and the desperate aspect of the siege, under an ostentation of festivity. The spectacle of this evening, if the oldest members of the provincial court-circle might be believed, was the most gay and georgeous affair that had occur- red in the annals of the government. The brilliantly lighted apart- ments were thronged with figures that seemed to have stepped from the dark canvass of historic portraits, or to have flitted forth from the magic pages of romance, or at least to have flown hither from one of the London theatres, without a change of garments. Steeled knights of the conquests, bearded statesmen of Queen Elizabeth, and high-ru ffed ladies of her court, were mingled with characters of comedy, such as a parti-colored Merry Andrew, gingling his cap and hells; a swag-paunched Falstaffe, almost as provocative of laughter as his prototype, and a Don Quixote, with a bean-pole for a lance, and a pot-lid for a shield. But the broadest merriment was excited by a group of figures ridiculously dressed in old regimentals, which seemed to have been purchased at a military rag-fair, or pilfered from some receptacle of the cast-off clothes of both the French and British armies. Por- tions of their attire had probably been worn at the seige of Louis- burg, and the coats of most recent cut might have been rent and tattered by sword, ball, or bayonet, as long ago as Wolfes victory. One of these worthiesa tall, lank figure, brandishing a rusty sword of immense longitudepurported to be no less a personage than General George Washington ; and the other principal officers of the American army, such as Gates, Lee, Putnam, Schuyler, Ward and heath, were represented by similar scare-crows. An inter- view, in the mock-heroic style, between the rebel warriors and the British commander-in-chief, was received with immense applause, which came loudest of all from the loyalists of the colony. There was one of the guests, however, who stood apart, eyeing these antics sternly and scornfully, at once with a frown and a bitter smile. It was an old man, formerly of high station and great repute in the province, and who had been a very famous soldier in his day. Some surprise had been expressed, that a person of Colonel Joliffes known whig principles, though now too old to take an active part in the contest, should have remained in Boston during the seige, and especially that he should consent to show himself in the mansion of Sir William Howe. But thither he had come, with a fair grand~ daughter under his arm; and there, amid all the mirth and buf- foonery, stood this stern old figure, the best sustained character in the masquerade, because so well representing the antique spirit of his native land. The other guests affirmed that Colonel Joliffes black puritanical scowl threw a shadow round about him; although, in spite of his sombre influence, their gaiety continued to blaze higher, like(an ominous comparison)the flickering brilliancy 1838.] Howes Masquerade. 133 of a lamp which has but a little while to burn. Eleven strokes, full half an hour ago, had pealed from the clock of the Old South, when a rumor was circulated among the company, that some new specta- cle or pageant was about to be exhibited, xvhich should put a fitting close to the splendid festivities of the night. What new jest has your Excellency in hand ? asked the Rev- erend Mather Byles, whose Presbyterian scruples had not kept him from the entertainment. Trust me, sir, I have already laughed more than beseems my cloth, at your Homeric confabulation with yonder ragamuffin General of the rebels. One other such fit of merriment, and I must throw off my clerical wig and band. Not so, good Doctor Byles, answered Sir William 1-Lowe; if mirth were a crime, you had never gained your doctorate in divinity. As to this new foolery, I know no more about it than yourself; per- haps not so much. honestly now, Doctor, have you not stirred up the sober brains of some of your countrymen to enact a scene in our masquerade ? Perhaps, slily remarked the grand-daughter of Colonel Joliffe, whose high spirit had been stung by many taunts against New Eng- land, perhaps we are to have a masque of allegorical figures. Victory, with trophies from Lexington and Bunker-Hill. Plenty, with her overflowing horn, to typify the present abundance in this good townand Glory, with a wreath for his Excellencys brow. Sir William Howe smiled at words which he would have answer- ed with one of his darkest frowns, had they been uttered by lips that wore a beard. He was spared the necessity of a retort, by a singu- lar interruption. A sound of music was heard without the house, as if proceeding from a full band of military instruments stationed in the street, playing not such a festal strain as was suited to the occa- sion, but a slow, funeral march. The drums appeared to be muf- fled, and the trumpets poured forth a wailing breath, which at once hushed the merriment of the auditors, filling all with wonder, and some with apprehension. The idea occurred to many, that either the funeral procession of some great personage had halted in front of the Province-House, or that a corpse, in a velvet-covered and gorgeously decorated coffin, was about to be borne from the portal. After listening a moment, Sir William howe called in a stern voice to the leader of the musicians, who had hitherto enlivened the en- tertainment with gay and lightsome melodies. The man was drum- major to one of the British regiments. Dighton, demanded the General, what means this foolery? Bid your band silence that dead marchor, by my word, they shall have sufficient cause for their lugubrious strains! Silence it, sirrah ! Please your honor, answered the drum-major, whose rubicund visage had lost all its color, the fault is none of mine. I, and my band are all here together; and I question whether there be a man 134 Tales of the Province-House.No. I. [May? of us that could play that march without hook. I never heard it but once before, and that was at the funeral of his late Majesty, King George the Second. Well, well! said Sir William Howe, recovering his c ompo- sure It is the prelude to some masquerading antic. Let it pass.~~ A figure now presented itself, but among the many fantastic masks that were dispersed through the apartments, none could tell precise- ly from whence it came. It was a man in an old fashioned dress of black serge, and having the aspect of a steward, or principal do- mestic in the household of a nobleman, or great English landholder. This figure advanced to the outer door of the mansion, and throw- ing both its leaves wide open, withdrew a little to one side and looked back towards the grand staircase, as if expecting some person to descend. At the same time, the mu ic in the street sounded a loud and doleful summoffs. The eyes of Sir William Howe and his guests bein~ directed to the staircase, there appear- ed, on the uppermost landing-place that was discernible from the bottom, s~vernl persona~es descending towards the door. The foremost was a man of stern visage, wearing a steeple-crowned hat and a scull-cap beneath it, a dark cloak, and huge wrinkled boots that came half-way up his legs. Under his arm was a rolled- up banner, which seemed to be the banner of England, but strange- ly rent and torn; he had a sword in his right hand and grasped a bible in his left. The next figure was of milder aspect, yet full of dignity, wearing a broad ruff, over which descended a beard, a gown of wrought velvet, and a doubtlet and hose of black satin. He carried a roIl of manu cript in his hand. Close behind these two, came a youn~ man of very striking countenance and demea- nor, with deep thought and contemplation on his brow, and per- haps a flash of enthusiasm in his eye. his barb, like that of his predecessors, was of an antique fashion, and there was a stain of blood upon his ruff. In the same group with these, were three or four other , all men of dignity and evident command, and bear- ing themselves like personages who were accustomed to the gaze of the multitude. It was the idea of the beholders, that these figures went to join the mysterious funeral that had halted in front of the Province-House; yet that supposition seemed to he contra- dicted by the air of triumph ~vith which they waved their hands, as they crOsSe(l the threshhold and vanished through the portal. In the devils name, what is this I muttered Sir William Howe to a gentleman beside him; a procession of the regicide judges of King Charles, the martyr? These, said Colonel Joliffe, breaking silence almost for the first time that evening these, if I interpret them aright, are the Puritan governorsthe rulers of the old, original Democracy A 1838.1 howes Mczsquerade. 135 Massachusetts. Endicott, with the banner from which he had torn the symbol of subjection, and Winthrop, and Sir Henry Vane, and Dudley, Haynes~ Bellingham, and Leverett. Why had that young man a stain of blood upon his ruff? asked Miss Joliffe. Because, in after years, answered her grandfather, he laid down the wisest head in England upon the block, for the principles of liberty. Will not your Excellency order out the guard? ~vhispered Lord Percy, who, with other British officers, had now assembled round the General. There may be a plot under this mummery. Tush! We have nothing to fear, carelessly replied Sir William I-Lowe. There can be no worse treason in the matter than a jest, and that somewhat of the dullest. Even were it a sharp and bitter one, our best policy would be to laugh it off. Seehere come more of these gentry. Another group of characters had now partly descended the stair -case. The first was a venerable and white-headed patriarch, who cautiously felt his way downward with a staffi Treadin~ hastily behind him, and stretching forth his gauntleted hand as if to grasp The old mans shoulder, came a tall, soldier-like figure, equipped with a plum .d cap of steel, a bright breast-plate, and a long sword which ra{tl d against the stairs. Next was seen a stout man, dressed in rich and courtly attire, but not of courtly demeanor; his gait had the swinging motion of a seamans walk; and chancing to stumble ~on the staircase, he suddenly grew wrathful and was heard to mutter an oath. He was followed by a noble-looking personage in a curled wig, such as are represented in the portraits of Queen Annes time and e~rlier; and the breast of the coat was decorated with an embroidered star. While advancing to the door, he bowed to the right hand and to the left, in a very gracious and insinuating style; but as he crossed the threshold, unlike the early Puritan governors, he seemed to wring his h- nds with sorrow. Prithee, play the part of a chorus, good Doctor Byles, said Sir William Howe. What ~vorthies are these I If it please your Excellency, they lived somewhat before my day, answered the doctor; but doubtless our friend, the Colonel, has been hand and glove with them. Their livin faces I never looked upon, said Colonel Joliffe, gravely; although I have spoken face to face with many rulers of this laud, and shall breet yet another with an old mans blessing, ere I die. But we talk of these figures. I take the venerable patri- arch to be Bradstreet, the last of the Puritans, who was governor at ninety, or thereabout . The next is Sir Edinund Andros, a tyrant, .as any New England scho i-boy will tell you; and therefore the people cast him down from his high seat into a dungeon. Theme 136 Tales of the Province-House.No. I. [May, comes Sir William Phipps, shepherd, cooper, sea-captain, and go- vernormay many of his countrymen rise as high, from as low an origin! Lastly, you saw the gracious Earl of Bellamont, who ruled us under King William. But what is the meaning of it all U asked Lord Percy. Now, were I a rebel, said Miss Jolifie, half aloud, I might fancy that the ghosts of these ancient governors had been sum- moned to fain the funeral procession of royal authority in New England. Several other gentlemen were now seen at the turn of the staircase The one in advance had a thoughtful, anxious, and somewhat crafty cxpression of face; and in spite of his loftiness of manner, which was evidently the result both of an ambitioun spirit and of long continuance in high stations, he seemed not inca- pable of cringing to a greater than himself. A few steps behind came an officer in a scarlet and embroidered uniform, cut in a fashion old enough to have been worn by the Duke of Marlbo- rough. His nose had a rubicund tinge, which, together with the twinkle of his eye, might have marked him as a lover of the wine- cup and good-fellowship; notwithstanding which tokens, he ap- peared ill at ease, and often glanced around him, as if apprehensive of some secret mischief. Next came a portly gentleman, wearing a coat of shaggy cloth, lined with silken velvet; he had sense, shrewdness, and humor in his face, and a folio volume under his arm; but his aspect was that of a man vexed and tormented beyond all patience, and harrassed almost to death. He went hastily down, and was followed by a dignified person, dressed in a purple velvet suit, with very rich embroidery; his demeanor would have pos- sessed much stateliness, only that a grievous lit of the gout com- pelled him to hobble from stair to stair, with contortions of face and body. When Doctor Byles beheld this figure on the staircase, he shivered as with an ague, but continued to watch him steadfastly, until the gouty gentleman had reached the threshold, made a gesture of anguish and despair, and vanished into the outer gloom, whither the funeral music summoned him. Governor Beicher !my old patron !in his very shape and~ dress ! gasped Doctor Byles. This is an awful mockery ! ~A tedious foolery, rather, said Sir William Howe, with an air of indifference. But who were the three that preceded him? Governor Dudley, a cunning politicianyet his craft once brought him to a prison, replied Colonel Joliffe. Governor Shute, formerly a Colonel under Marlborough, and whom the peo- ple frightened out of the province; and learned Governor Burnet, whom the legislature tormented into a mortal fever. Methinks they were miserable men, these royal governors of Massachusetts, observed Miss Joliffe. ~Heavens, how dim the light grows ! 1838.1 Howes Masquerade. 137 It was certainly a fact that the large lamp, which illuminated the staircase, now burned dim and duskily; so that several figures, which passed hastily down the stairs and went forth from the porch, appeared rather like shadows than persons of fleshly substance. Sir William howe and his guests stood at the doors of the con- tiguous apartments, watching the progress of this singular pageant, with curious emotions of anger, contempt, or half-acknowledged fear, but still with an anxious curiosity. The shapes, which now seemed hastening to join the mysterious procession, were recog- nized rather. by striking peculiarities of dress, or broad character- istics of manner, than by any perceptible resemblance of features to their prototypes. Their faces, indeed, ~vere invariably kept in deep shadow. But Doctor Byles, and other gentlemen who had long been familiar with the successive rulers of the province, were heard to whisper the names of Shirley, of Pownall, of Sir Francis Bernard, and of the well-remembered Hutchinson; thereby con- fessing that the actors, whoever they might be, in this spectral march of Governors, had succeeded in putting on some distant portraiture of the real personages. As they vanished from the door, still did these shadows toss their arms into the gloom of night, with a great expression of wo. Following the mimic rep- resentative of Hutchinson, came a military figure, holding before his face the cocked hat which he had taken from his powdered head; but his epaulettes and other insignia of rank were those of a general officer; and something in his mien reminded the behold- ers of one who had recently been master of the Province-House, and chief of all the land. The shape of Gage, as true as in a looking-glass, exclaimed Lord Percy, turning pale. No, surely, cried Miss Joliffe, laughing hysterically ; it could not be Gage, or Sir William would have greeted his old comrade in arms! Perhaps he will not suffer the next to pass unchallenged. Of that be ass~ured, young lady, answered Sir William Howe, fixing his eyes, with a very marked expression, upon the immoven- ble visage of her grandfather. I have long enough delayed to pay the ceremonies of a host to these departing guests. The next that takes his leave shall receive due courtesy. A wild and dreary burst of music came through the open door. It seemed as if the procession, which had been gradually filling up its ranks, were now about to move, and that this loud peal of the wailing trumpets, and roll of the muffled drums, were a call to some loiterer to make haste. Many eyes, by an irresistible impulse, were turned upon Sir William Howe, as if it were he whom the dreary music summoned to the funeral of departed power. See !here comes the last ! whispered Miss Joliffe, pointing her tremulous finger to the staircase. 138 Tales of the Province-House.No. I. [May~ A figure had come into view as if descending the stairs; although, so dusky was the region whence it emerged, some of the spectators fain cried that they had seen this human shape suddenly moulding itself amid the gloom. Downward the figure came, with a stately and martial tread, and reaching the lowest stair was observed to be a tall man, booted and wrapped in a military cloak, which xvas drawn up around the face so as to meet the flapped brim of a laced hat. The features, therefore, were completely hidden. But the British officers deemed that they had seen that military cloak before, and even recognized the frayed embroidery on the collar, as well as the gilded scabbard of a sword which protruded from the folds of the cloak and glittered in a vivid gleam of light. Apart from these trifling particulars there were characteristics of gait and bearing which impelled the wondering guests to glance from the shrouded figure to Sir William Howe, as if to satisfy themselves~ that their host had not suddenly vanished from the midst of them. With a dark flush of wrath upon his brow they saw the General draw his sxvord, and advance to meet the figure in the cloak before the latter had stepped one pace upon the floor. Villain, unmuffle yourself! cried he, You pass no further! The figure, without blenching a hairs-breadth from the sxvord which was pointed at his breast, made a solemn pause and loxvered the cape of the cloak from about his face, yet not sufficiently for the spectators to catch a glimpse of it. But Sir William Howe had evi- dently seen enough. The sternness of his countenance gave place to a look of wild amazement, if not horror, while he recoiled several steps from the fi~,ure and let fall his sword upon the floor. The martial shape again drew the cloak about his features and passed on; but reaching the threshhold, with his back towards the spec- tators, he was seen to stamp his foot and shake his clenched hands in the air. It was afterwards affirmed that Sir William howe had repeated that self-same gesture of rage and sorrow, when, for the last time, and as the last royal Governor, he pnssed through the portal of the Province-House. Hark !the procession moves, said Miss Joliffe. The music was dying away along the street, and its dismal strains were mingled with the knell of midnight from the steeple of the Old South, and with the roar of artillery, which announced that the be- leaguering army of Washington had intrenched itself upon a nearer height than before. As the deep boom of the cannon smote upon his ear, Colonel Joliffe raised himself to the full height of his aged form and smiled sternly on the British General. Would your Excellency inquire further into the mystery of the pageant? said he. Take care of your gray bead ! cried Sir William Howe, fierce- 1838.] Howes Masquerade. 139 ly, though with a quivering lip. It has stood too long on a traitors shoulders ! You must make haste to chop it off, then, calmly replied the Colonel, for, a few hours longer, and not all the power of Sir William Howe, nor of his master, shall cause one of these gray hairs to fall. The empire of Britain, in this ancient province, is at its last gasp to-night ;almost while I speak, it is a dead corpse? and, methinks the shadows of the old Governors are fit mourners at its funeral! With these words Colonel Joliffe threw on his cloak, and drawing his grand-daughters arm within his own, retired from the last fes- tival that a British ruler ever held in the old province of Massachu- setts Bay. It was supposed that the Colonel and the young lady possessed some secret intelligence in regard to the mysterious pa- geant of that night. However this mi ht be, such knowledge has never become general. The actors in the scene have vanished into deeper obscurity than even that wild Indian band who scattered the cargoes of the tea ships on the waves, and gained a place in history, yet left no names. But superstition, among other legends of this mansion, repeats the wondrous tale that, on the anniversary night of Britains discomfiture, the ghosts of the ancient Governors of Mas- achusetts still glide through the portal of the Province-House. And, last of all, comes a figure shrouded in a military clo~k, tossing his clenched hands into the air, and stamping his iron-shod boots upon the broad free-stone steps with a semblance of feverish des- pair, but without the sound of a foot-tramp. When the truth-telling accents of the elderly gentleman were hushed, I drew a long breath and looked round the room, striving, with the best energy of my imagination, to throw a tinge of romance and historic grandeur over the realities of the scene. But my nos- trils snuffed up a scent of cigar smoke, clouds of which the narrator had emitted by way of visible emblem, I suppose, of the nebulous obscurity of his tale. Moreover, my gorgeous fantasies were wo- fully disturbed by the rattling of the spoon in a tumber of whiskey- punch, which Mr. Thomas Waite was minglin~ for a customer. Nor did it add to the picturesque appearance of the pannelled walls, that the slate of the Brooklyn stage was suspended against them, instead of the armorial escutcheon of some far-descended Governor. A stage driver sat at one of the windows, reading a penny paper of the day,the Boston Times,and presenting a figure which could nowise be brou~ht into any picture of Times in Boston, seventy or a hundred years ago. On the window-seat lay a bundle, neatly done up in brown paper, the direction of which I had the idle curiosity to read. Miss SUSAN HTJGGINS, at the PRovINcE-HousE. A pretty chamber-maid, no doubt. In 140 The Contrast. [May, truth, it is desperately hard work, when we attempt tc~ throw the spell of hoar antiquity over localities with which the living world, and the day that is passing over us, have aught to do. Yet as I glanced at the stately staircase, down which the procession of the old Governors had descended, and as I emerged through the venera- ble portal, whence their figures had preceded me, it gladdened me to be conscious of a thrill of awe. Then diving through the narrow arch-way, a few strides transported me into the densest throng of Washington-Street. THE CONTRAST. BY MRs. L. U. 5IGOTJRNEY. The mother sat beside her fire, Well trimmed it was, and bright,~ While loudly moaned the forest-pines, Amid that wintry night. She heard them not,those wind-swept pines, For oer a scroll she hung, That bore her husbands voice of love, As when. that love was young. And thrice her son, beside her knee, Besought her favouring eye, And thrice her lisping daughter spoke, Before she made reply. 0, little daughter, many a kiss ( Lurks in this treasured line, And boy,a fathers counsels fond, And tender prayers are thine. Thou hast his proud and arching brow, Thou hast his eye of flame, And be the purpose of thy soul, Thy sunward course, the same. Then, as she drew them to her arms, Down her fair cheek would glide A tear, that shone like diamond spark, The tear of love and pride.

140 The Contrast. [May, truth, it is desperately hard work, when we attempt tc~ throw the spell of hoar antiquity over localities with which the living world, and the day that is passing over us, have aught to do. Yet as I glanced at the stately staircase, down which the procession of the old Governors had descended, and as I emerged through the venera- ble portal, whence their figures had preceded me, it gladdened me to be conscious of a thrill of awe. Then diving through the narrow arch-way, a few strides transported me into the densest throng of Washington-Street. THE CONTRAST. BY MRs. L. U. 5IGOTJRNEY. The mother sat beside her fire, Well trimmed it was, and bright,~ While loudly moaned the forest-pines, Amid that wintry night. She heard them not,those wind-swept pines, For oer a scroll she hung, That bore her husbands voice of love, As when. that love was young. And thrice her son, beside her knee, Besought her favouring eye, And thrice her lisping daughter spoke, Before she made reply. 0, little daughter, many a kiss ( Lurks in this treasured line, And boy,a fathers counsels fond, And tender prayers are thine. Thou hast his proud and arching brow, Thou hast his eye of flame, And be the purpose of thy soul, Thy sunward course, the same. Then, as she drew them to her arms, Down her fair cheek would glide A tear, that shone like diamond spark, The tear of love and pride. 1838.1 The Contrast. 141 She took her infant from its rest, And laid it on her knee, Thou neer hast seen thy sire, she said, But hell be proud of thee. Yes,hell be proud of thee, my dove, The lily of our line! I know what eye of blue he loves, And such an eye is thine. Where is my father gone, mama? Why does he stay so long? Hes far away in Congress-Hall, Amid the noble throng. Hes in the lofty Congress-Hall, To swell the high debate, And help to frame those righteous laws That make our land so great. But ere the earliest violets bloom, You in his arms shall be; So go to rest, my children dear, And pray for him and me. The snow-flakes reared their drifted mound. They buried nature deep, Yet nought within that peaceful home, Stirred the soft down of sleep. For lightly, like an angels dream, The trance of slumber fell, Where innocence and holy love Entwined their guardian spell. Another eve,another scroll, Wot ye what words it said? Two words,two fearful words it bore, The duel !and the dead ! ! The duel !and the dead !how dark Was that young mothers eye, How fearful her protracted sWoon How wild her piercing cry! 142 The Contrast. [May, Theres many a wife, whose bosoms lord Is in his prime laid low Enguiphed beneath thewaterymain, While bitter tempests blow. Or crushed amid the battle-field, Where crimson rivers flow, Yet know they not the deadly pang That dregs her cup of wo. Who lies so po~verless on her couch, Transfixed by sorrows sting? Her infant in its nurses arms Like a forgotten thing? A. dark-haired boy is at her side, He lifts his eagle eye, Mother,they say my fathers dead, How did my father die? Again,the spear-point in her breast! Again,that shriek of pain! Child !thou hast riven thy mothers soul, Speak not those words again. Speak not those words again, my son! What boots the fruitless care? They re written wheresoer she turns, On ocean, earth, or air. They re seared upon her shrinking heart, That bursts beneath its doom, The duel !and the dead !they haunt The threshold of her tomb. So, through her brief and weary years That broken heart she bore, And on her pale and drooping brow The smile sat never more. 143 1838.1 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN. & RTICLE SECOND. IN a preceding article we laid before our readers an outline of the accounts given by the Icelandic xvriters, as quoted in the volume before us, of the accidental discovery of the western continent by the Northmen, and of the voyages that were subsequently under- taken by them for its exploration and settlement. On the present occasion, we propose to examine how far these accounts are entitled to credit; and, supposing them to be substantially true, on what part of the coast the northern navigators probably landed. The first question that naturally occurs in regard to these accounts, is, en xvhat authority do they rest? The leading facts in the narra- tive have long been more or less familiar to the student in geogra- phy, ~nd even to the reading public; but the power of ascertaining exaetly the value of the evidence upon which they are founded, has hitherto been in possession of a very few persons,those only who have had access to the original Icelandic manuscripts, which are locked up in the libraries of the North of Europe, and still more securely concealed in a dialect which is very little studied out of the region where it is spoken. The principal object of the work before us is to enable the gene- ral reader to settle this question for himself, by placing before him all the original authorities, accompanied by translations into lan- guages accessible to most educated men. So far as the authenticity of the leading facts is concerned, we have no hesitation in saying, that the evidence with which we are now furnished is to us satisfac- tory. It would be irrelevant to our present purpose, to go into a very full bibliographical description of the authorities cited; but it will be easy, in a few words, to convey to our readers a correct idea of their valne and character. The work before us contains extracts from eighteen manuscripts, mostly in the Icelandic language, all of which either describe, or allude to, the discovery of this continent by the Northmen. The passage containing the description or allusion, is, in each case, pub- lished entire, with Danish and Latin translations. The allusions made ifl some of these passages are brief and cursory,giving no additional information, and serving only to authenticate the narra- tive contained in the others. The authorities chiefly relied on for the facts, are two manuscript works, one of which is entitled the * ANrmvlrAras AMERICANIE: sive Scriptores Septentrionales Rerum Ante-Colum- bianarum in America. Edidit Societas Regia Antiqvariorurn Septentrionalium. Hafniae, 4to. pp. 4471837.

143 1838.1 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN. & RTICLE SECOND. IN a preceding article we laid before our readers an outline of the accounts given by the Icelandic xvriters, as quoted in the volume before us, of the accidental discovery of the western continent by the Northmen, and of the voyages that were subsequently under- taken by them for its exploration and settlement. On the present occasion, we propose to examine how far these accounts are entitled to credit; and, supposing them to be substantially true, on what part of the coast the northern navigators probably landed. The first question that naturally occurs in regard to these accounts, is, en xvhat authority do they rest? The leading facts in the narra- tive have long been more or less familiar to the student in geogra- phy, ~nd even to the reading public; but the power of ascertaining exaetly the value of the evidence upon which they are founded, has hitherto been in possession of a very few persons,those only who have had access to the original Icelandic manuscripts, which are locked up in the libraries of the North of Europe, and still more securely concealed in a dialect which is very little studied out of the region where it is spoken. The principal object of the work before us is to enable the gene- ral reader to settle this question for himself, by placing before him all the original authorities, accompanied by translations into lan- guages accessible to most educated men. So far as the authenticity of the leading facts is concerned, we have no hesitation in saying, that the evidence with which we are now furnished is to us satisfac- tory. It would be irrelevant to our present purpose, to go into a very full bibliographical description of the authorities cited; but it will be easy, in a few words, to convey to our readers a correct idea of their valne and character. The work before us contains extracts from eighteen manuscripts, mostly in the Icelandic language, all of which either describe, or allude to, the discovery of this continent by the Northmen. The passage containing the description or allusion, is, in each case, pub- lished entire, with Danish and Latin translations. The allusions made ifl some of these passages are brief and cursory,giving no additional information, and serving only to authenticate the narra- tive contained in the others. The authorities chiefly relied on for the facts, are two manuscript works, one of which is entitled the * ANrmvlrAras AMERICANIE: sive Scriptores Septentrionales Rerum Ante-Colum- bianarum in America. Edidit Societas Regia Antiqvariorurn Septentrionalium. Hafniae, 4to. pp. 4471837. 144 Discovery of America by the Northmen. [May, Chronicle of Eric the Red, and the other the Chronicle of Thor- finn Karlsefne. The Chronicle of Eric the Red is one of a considerable number of documents, contained in a large manuscript, commonly called the Flatey Manuscript, from its having been preserved a long time in a convent, in the island of Flatey, on the west of Iceland. It was presented, about a century ago, by the Bishop of Skalholt to Frederic III, King of Denmark, and by him deposited in the Royal Library at Copenhagen, where it is now kept. It is stated in the manuscript itself, that it was written at the close of the fourteenth century, by certain priests, whose names are given. The Chronicle, as it ap- pears in this collection, is composed of two parts, or chapters, en- titled, respectively, the Chapter of Eric the Red, and the Chapter of Greenland, both purporting ~ be extracts from a more ancient work on the life of Eric, which is not extant. The style of the work, and particularly of the poetical fragments that form a part of it, is that of the twelfth century. It does not appear that there are any other copies of the Chronicle of Eric in existence, excepting that which is contained in the Flatey collection. It is found, how- ever, in the Swedish edition, by Periaskiold, of the Iceilandic work, entitled Heimskringla, or the History of the Northern Kings, by Snorre Sturleson, a celebrated Icelandic warrior, statesman, his- torian, and poet, who flourished about the year 1200. But it is not contained in any of the manuscript copies of that work, and is understood to have been incorporated into it from the Flatey cob lection by the translator. A fac simile of this, as of the other manuscripts cited, is given in the volume before us. It is described as being in fine preservation, and beautifully written and illumi- nated, as appears, in fact, from the specimen given. The history of the manuscript is well known, and there is no reason to doubt that it was written, as it purports to have been, at the close of the fourteenth century, at the convent, in Iceland, where it was formerly kept. Of the earlier work on the life of Eric, from which the two extracts composing the Chronicle appear to have been taken, no copy is extant; and nothing is known, with certainty, of its date, composition, or character. It is supposed by the Danish Society, from internal evidence, that it may have been written originally in Greenland, and brought to Iceland at about the time when the ex- tracts composing the Chronicle were copied into the Flatey col- lection. The Chronicle of Thorfinn Karlsefne, which is the other princi- pal source of the narrative, is one of a collection of manuscripts, belonging to the Royal Library at Copenhagen, called the Arno- Magnesian Collection, from its having been presented to the library by a distinguished Icelander named Arno Magnussen. The Chroni- cle is of the date of the end of the thirteenth, or begi~tning of the 1838.) Testimony Examined. 145 fourteenth century. It is beautifully written, and in fine preserva- tion, as appears from the specimens. In preparing it for the press the editors have collated a number of other manuscripts, also pre- served in the library, which contain copies of this Chronicle. The narrative gi en in the work varies considerably in the particulars from that given n the Chronicle of Eric. Thorfinn is put forward as the principal personage. Nothing is said of the discoveries of Biarne, and but little of the voyage of Leif, although it is alluded to. Thorwald, who, according to the other account, made his voy- age, and was killed before that of Thorfian, is here represented as one of his companions. The basis of th narrative is, however, substantially the same. Nothing is known respecting the author- ship of this rork; but it is conjectured, with great probability, by the Danish Society, that it was written by one of the immediate descendants of fhorfinn, through his American-born son, Snorre. It seems that among these descendants were three bishops, who flourished in the course of the twelf century. All of these must have had the means, and some one of them may very naturally have had the inclination to commit to paper the knowledge possessed by this distinguished family of the expeditious of their ancestors to the Western Continent. Bishop Thorlak, a grandson of Snorre, is the person whom the Society appear disposed to consider as the ~author, although there is no particular reason for attributing the work to him in preference to the others, excepting that lie is known as the author of another work, on the Ecclesiastical Law of Iceland, and must, of course, have possessed some talent and aptitude for literature. Either of these Chronicles would be considered, on the ordinary principles of criticism, sufficient authority for any historical nar- rative, not in itself improbable. A great part of what we know of the history of Greece and Rome, rests on the single testimony of Ilerodotus and Livy. But the concurrence in the case before us of two sources entirely independent of each other, strengthens the case very much. And although nothing is known, with certainty, of the origin and authorship of either of the accounts, it is apparent that they were written without communication, as well from the ab- sence of any community of thought or language in treating the same subjects, as from the discrepancies between them on several points, to wbich we have alluded. If any farther confirmation of the cre- dibility of the narrative be thought necessary, it is afforded by the concurrence of the sixtcen other independent authorities quoted by the Society, all of which allude, though generally in a cursory manner, to the expeditions to Wineland, as well-known events. One of these authorities is the Heimskringja of Snorre Sturleson, the most important historical work in Icelandic literature,whieh coratains, beside the interpolated Chronicle of Eric, a passing allu~- VOL. H. NO. vi. K 146 Discovery of America by the Northmen.~ [May, sion to the subject, by the distinguished author himself. Among the sixteen additional authorities are two manuscripts of the thir- teenth century, containing imperfect attempts at a universal geogra- phy, or description of all the parts of the then known world. Ta both these lielluland, Markland, Wineland the Good, and Huitra- mannarland, are regularly mentioned in the proper connection with no more expression of doubt as to their real existence, than there is in regard to that of England, Scotland, or Ireland. This body of evidence is probably as strong as can be produced in support of any historical narrative, of which the scene is laid in an unlearned age, and in countries remote from the centres of civi- lization. Nor ought it to be considered as an objection to the cre- dibility of the accounts, that they include a certain portion of matter which is obviously fabulous,such as tales of apparitions, divina- tion, and sorcery. The introduction of this kind of machinery serves rather to show that the accounts were written, as they pur- port to have been, in a half-civilized age, and thus confirms, instead of shaking, the authenticity of the narrative,as the brown color and old-fashioned characters of an ancient manuscript, instead of detracting from its value, are the very proof of its genuineness~ If it were fair and fresh it would be good for nothing. In like manner, if these accounts, purporting, as they do, to have been written by half-learned and superstitious men of the middle ages, possessed the elegant style and philosophical maturity of thought, which we find in Thucydides or Tacitus, we should pronounce them, without hesitation, to be modern fictions. The accounts of Herodotus and Livy, upon which we rely for nearly all our knowledge of the history of Greece and Rome, are mixed up with a plentiful infusion of this same fabulous material, which also figures abundantly in all the histories of the middle ages. To take a single example: The Emperor Charlemagne, is one of the most conspicuous characters in the early history of modern Europe. No one thinks of disputing the reality of his existence, 4 or the fact of his coronation at Aix-In-Chapelle, which was the seat of his government. But if we go back to the original sources, from which we derive almost all our knowledge of himwe mean the account of his life, by his private Secretary, Eginhard,we shall find it ornamented with fables which are, to say the least, quite as incredible as any thing of the kind to be found in the Chronicles of Thorfinn, or Eric the Red. It is there stated that the Pope had ordered the attendance at his coronation of three hundred and sixty- five bishops, one for every day in the year. On calling the roll there was found to be a deficiency of two in the number, upon which, two bishops, by name Mondulf and Gondulf, who had been dead about half a century, and were quietly reposing in their sepul- chres at Liege, a city fifty miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, 1838.] Testimony Examined. 147 having been informed, in some unexplained way, of the deficiency, burst their cerements, and repaired with all speed to Aix, where they arrived just in time to fill up the vacant places in the proces- sion. Every reader of course rejects this part of the account without hesitation; but no one considers it as throwing even a shade of doubt over the authenticity of those parts of the narrative, which are, in themselves, consistent with probability. In the same way the statements given in these Chronicles, that Thorwald is killed by a one-footed savagethat Gudrida tells fortunes and sees apparitions, and so forth, are to be regarded as a kind of embroidery growing out of the taste and belief of a half-informed and super- stitious community, and serving merely to shew that the accounts were written, as they purport to have been, under circumstances of that description. This feature in the chronicles tends, therefore, to confirm rather than to shake our belief in the credibility of the main facts. The only circumstance, which may, perhaps, be thought to hring it into question, is the description given of the climate of Wineland. It is distinctly stated, in both the chronicles, that there was neither frost nor snow during the whole year at the place where the Northmeu made their settlement, and that the cattle were kept out at pasture through the winter. This is a description which certainly does not agree with the climate of any part of the coast of North America, and especially the more northerly portions, which, it is probable from other circumstances, was the one visited by the Northmen. This difficulty cannot perhaps be entirely removed, and must be allowed the weight which each one for himself may choose to give it, in opposition to the overwhelming mass of direct evidence in support of the leading facts in the narrative. It may be remarked, however, in the way of explanation, that the climate of the middle and southern parts of the coast of this continent would appear to be, and in fact would be, for the natives of the Hyperborean regions, a much more genial one than it seems to us. The African shivers over a fire in the midst of a New England summer; in like manner to the benumbed and frost-bitten senses of the inhabitants of Greenland or Iceland, the winter suns of Newport would impart a feeling of Elysium. This consideration will account fully for al.. most any general terms of satisfaction in which the Northmen may have spoken of the climate of Wineland, and sufficiently explains the epithet good, which they applied to it. But the positive fact that there was no frost or snow, and that the cattle were pastured out through the winter, seem to require a more positive explana- tion. Had any one of the original navigatorsThorfina for exam- pleafter passing three winters in Wineland, written himself an account of his voyage in which he stated that he had seen neither frost nor snow, it would be necessary to suppose, if we admitted [May, 148 Discovery of America by the Northmcn~ the general credibility of his narrative, that he had visited some region very far to the south of New England. But the difficulty is much diminished, if not entirely removed, when we recollect that these accounts. were probably handed down for two or three gene- rations in the families of the original navigators,, by oral tradition~ It is evident that the discoverers gave, on their return, a glowing account of the climate and soil of the new-found region. They came backlike the spies sent out of old, by Joshua, into the promised landloaded with grapes, and told wonders of the pro- ductiveness and beauty of the country they had visited. Hence the significant name of Wincland, and the endearing epithet of the Good. In repeating these wonders to the next generation, the sons and daughters of the discoverers may very probably have exagger- ated the natural advantages of the place, especially after it had come to be considered a sort of Paradise Lost; and may even have introduced gradually some positive facts not included in the origi- nal narrative. The discoverers may have said, for example, that there was no frnst or snow, compared with the quantity that usually fell in Iceland and Greenland; or that, comparatively speaking~ there was no frost or snow. The next generation, omitting the comparison, may have simply said that there was little or no frost or snow. The little thus left may have melted away again in the mouth of some more enthusiastic narrator, so that when in the third or fourth generation, the accounts came into the hands of Bishop Thorlak, or whoever else may have written them down, our incle- ment climate had put on the aspect of an almost perpetual spring. As this explanation agrees with the manner in which the accounts are supposed to have been preserved, it is to us a satisfactory one~ But admitting even that some shade of difficulty may still remain in regard to this point, it certainly does not outweigh the direct evi- dence from so many independent sources in support of the sub- stantial authenticity of the leading facts of the narrative. On the whole, therefore, we have no hesitation in receiving as authentic history the statements that the Northmen, about the commencement of the eleventh century, discovered and visited sev- eral parts of this Continent, to which they gave the names of Helluland, Maricict d and Wineland. The next question that presents itself is :what were the parts of the coast thus discovered and designated? The Danish Society, as we have remarked in our preceding article, identify Helluland with Labrador, Markland with Nova Scotia~ and Wineland with Massachusetts and Rhode Island~ They state their conclusion with great confidence, and offer evi- dence in support of them, which, at first view, is quite irresistible. We are free to say that this evidence, on such examination as we have been able to give it, is not to our minds entirely satisfactory. There is, however, we think, a great weight of probability in favor 1838.] Testimony Examined. 149 of their conclusions. The inquiry involves an immense mass of ~details, which it is impossible to go into on an occasion like the present. We will brie~fiy allude to the two or three most important points. 1. The first point to be taken into view in fixing the precise lo- cality of these discoveries, is the statement given in the Chronicle of Eric, of the length of the shortest day in Wineland. If the 4ranslation given by the Danish Society of the passage containing this statement, be correct, the question is of course decided be- yond disp te, and all other indications must be made to tally with it as well as they can. The Society translate the passage alluded to as follows: The days were more nearly equal in length than in Greenland -or Iceland. On the shortest day in the year, the sun rose at half past seven oclock, an(l set at half past four. This account of the length of the shortest day fixes the latitude of the place where the observation was made, at 4j0 24 10. Point Judith lies in 41~ 23. If therefore this translation be a cor- rect one, the country denominated Winelcznd by the Northmen must have been situated somewhere in the neighbourhood of Cape Cod, and extended itself over a great part of the coast of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Evidence of this character seems at first view, as we remarked above, to be quite irresistible. There is no possibility of error excepting in the correctness of the translation, and it is hardly te be supposed that a learned Society should not be able to give a cor- rect translation of a short passage of three lines, written in a language which, in its modern form, is doubtless spoken by several of the members as a native tongue. It may even appear presump- tuous in foreigners, very slightly acquainted with the Icelandic dialects, to pretend to dispute their opinion; and it must, we think, be admitted that this translation of the passage in question, given, as it appears to be, with perfect co fidence by the Danish Antiqua- ries, furnishes a strong presumptive argument in favor of their conclusions, and throws a great degree of probability over their whole system. It is, however, frankly admitted by them that the passage is obscure, and that its meaning has been the subject of great controversy. Without going into the subject very much in detail, we will endeavour to state the nature of the difficulty as we understand it. The passage of which the Society give the above translation, or rather paraphrase, as it stands in the original Icelan- die in thefhronicle of Eric, is as follows: Meira var par jafnd~gri enn ~ Grrnlandi edr islandi: sol cifdi par eyktarstad ok dagmilastad urn Skamdegi. The meaning, if we understand the pas5age correctly, is this: The days were more nearly equal in length than in Greenland 150 Discovery of Americt by tJ~e Northmen. [May, or Iceland; for on the shortest day in the year the sun rose at breakfast time. The Society obtain the sense which they have given to the pas- sage by interpreting the word dagmdlastad, which literally means breakfast ti e,half past seven oclock. It appears, in fact, that this word is, or has formerly been, used in Iceland to designate some particular hour, but authorities unfortunately are not agreed as to what that hour is or was; and hence results, in part at least, the obscurity of the passage. It would seem from some of the writers quoted, that in the division of the day anciently used in Iceland, the word dagmdlastad or breakfast-time, was appropriated to nine oclock in the morning. This construction applied to the passage in question, would snake the shortest day in Wineland only six hours long, which is about the length in Iceland and Greenland. Thus construed, however, the passage would be inconsistent with itself, as it states expressly that the days were more nearly equal in length, and of coui~se that the shortest day was longer, than in Iceland or Greenland. This construction is also wholly inconsistent with the account of the climate, which, if it required some forcing to recon- cile it with that of New England, is wholly irreconcileable with that of the coast of Labrador. Another authority, one of the principal Icelandic dictionaries, quoted by Torfeeus, gives to the word in question the meaning of eight oclock. This construction makes the shortest day eight hours long, and places Wineland in the lati- tude of Nova Scotia. Finally, Perinskiold, the Swedish translator of the Heimskringla, into which, as we have remarked, the Chroni- cle of Eric has been incorporated, gives in a parenthesis, as an explanation of the word dagmdlastad,six or seven oclock!! !. Periuskiold, himself a distinguished scholar, is known to have been assisted in his translation by a learned Icelander, so that his authori- ty on the question is not inconsiderable; but the vagueness of the language which he has employed, renders his testimony in a great measure useless. If we suppose the meaning of the word to be six oclock, we carry down Wineland at once to the Equator ;if seven, or as a medium half past six, we bring it back to some point on the coast of the United States, considerably south of New England. There are, therefore, respectable authorities for several different meanings of the word dagmeilastad, by the use of one or the other of which the passage in question might be reconciled with almost any meaning that should appear probable on other grounds~* *In adopting half past seven as the true meaning of the doubtful word dagmdtastad~ the Society appear to have been influenced by the construction which they have given to the word eyktarstad, which they suppose, as it stands in the passage, to indicate the hour of sunset on the shortest day in Wineland, and of which the mean- ing is also doubtful. This word they feel themselves at liberty, on grounds inde- pendent of the interpretation given to dagmdlastad, to render half past fosr oc1ock~ 1s~s. I Testimony Examined. 161 On the whole, this passage which, if clearly written, would be decisive in regard to the locality of Wineland, is, from its obscu- rity, of little or no value. Fortunately, the indications afforded by the climate, soil and natural productions of the country~the cour- ses and distances run, and the description of the coast are far more satisfactory. LI. It is impossible, in fact, to follow the Northmen in their course, as described in the accounts and touch with them at the places they successively visited, without perceiving that you are brought to the southeastern coast of New England. Let us trace, for this purpose, the first exploring expedition that was fitted out under Leif, after the accidental discovery by Biarne. He steers a southwest course, and after two or three days sailing, reaches a coast composed of flat barren rocks, rising in the distance into ice- bergs. This is necessarily, from the description, the coast of La- which they accordingly suppose to have been the hour of sunset in Wineland on the shortest day in the year. When the hour of sunset is half past four, that of sunrise is, of course, half past seven, and this construction of the word eyktarstad conse- quently indicates half past seven, as the one to be preferred among the different meanings of dagmdlastad. In this way the Society arrive, as they think, with sufficient certainty at a precise conclusion in regard to both the hours. Upon the meaning of the word eyktarstad, which is ad itted to be even more doubtful than that of dagm.dl stad, there is a long dissertation in the volume before us by a member of the Society. lie relies chiefly, in support of the construction which he has adopted, upon the following passage in the Latin introduction to the Edda, respecting the arrangement of the seasons in Iceland. Ab equinoetio est ant m us usq d sa sot occidit IN EvKTARsTAD, dei de hyems ad eqssiaoctiuflt. Upon this passage the author oC the dissertation remarks, that in the south of Iceland, where the Edda was compiled, it is usual to compute the beginning of win- ter from the Saturday between the fifteenth and twenty.first of October. This day, according to the Latin passage just quoted, is, therefore, the one when the sun sets in eyletarAtad; and the hour at which the sun sets in the south of Iceland on that day is the one indicated by the doubtful word. This is about half past four oclock. Such is the argument upon which the author of the dissertation, and the Society with him, round their interpretation of the passage in the Chronicle of Eric. We are free to say that it appears to us a rather vague method of reaching so precise a conclusion. It is also liable to some positive objections. On this construction of the passage in the Edda, autumn, in Iceland, would begin at the autumnal equinox, and end on the Saturday between the fifteenth and twentieth of October, thus com- prehending about one month, while winter would run from that day to the vernal equinox, and would include about five months. This inequality in the length of the seasons is at variance with the usual principles of arrangement, and the construction which supposes it, is, therefore, prima facie an improbable one. - The passage seems to us to admit of a better construction, and one that leads to a different conclusion from that drawn by the Society in regard to the doubtful phrase in the Chronicle of Eric. It is stated in the Edda that autumn begins at the autum- nal equinox, and that winter ends at the vernal one. This being the case, and sup- posing the seasons to be as usual, of equal length, winter would, of course, begin at he winter solstice. On the day of the winter solstice, then, according to this pas- sage in the Edda, the sun sets in eyktarstad in the south of Iceland. But according ts the paasa6e in the Chronicle if Eric, it also sets in eyletarst d on the day of the T52 Discovery of Azneri~cw by the Ncrthmen. May,~ brador. They set sail again, and in two or three days more, on making land a second time, they find the face of the country changed. Instead of flat barren rocks and icebergs, they now de-~ scribe a sandy shore rising into hills covered with wood. This description would correspond well enough with many parts of the American coast; but from the distances run, the country must be the most northerly part of the region xvhere the natural fore t takes the place of the perpetual snows arid icebergs of Labra4or. It must, of course, be some point on the coast of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick or Newfoundland. They put to sea again, and steering a southwest course with a fair wind, find themselves, af er two days sail, in a different climate, which, on their unaccustome4 senses, produces the effect of perpetual spring. The glowing de- scription which they have given of this region~ has, in the minds of some, thrown a shade of doubt over the whole narrative; but after all, the lea ing facts are indisputable. This earthly Paradise must winter solstice in Wineland. It ap ars, therefore, from a comparison of the tw passa~es that the sun sets in eyhtarstad in tx o different latitudes ou the same day. The word cannot, of course, mean any particular hour, because the sun cannot se& at the same hour on the same day in different latitudes~ What then does it mean? There is, apparently, only one thing that it can mean because there is only one point in which the circumstances of the settin~, of the sun in different latitudes on the day of the winter solstice agree. On that day the sun, iii all latitudes, reaches the extreme point of his declinati9n, and this we suppose to be he meanin of settin5 in eyhtarstad. This construction agrees very well with the signification of the word, which, thou5h now obsolete,. means etymolo~,ically, a limited time. Supposing this to be the meaning of the phrase in q stion, the passage in the Chronicle of Eric, would read as follows in an English translation: The days were more nea ly eqee tin length than n Greenland or Iceland; for, on the shortest day in the year, when the s n reaches the extreme point of his declinati , he rose at breakfast time. The Swedish translator of the Heimskringla, Perioskiold was also of opinioa that the word eyhtarstad did not indicate any particular hour. His translation of the passa~e in question is as follows: The days were more nearly eq al in Tength than in Greenl d or Iceland; for the seen HAD 5PAC 5 OP INCB A5E,I5A5UIT SPATIA AUOMENTANDI,and at the winter soistie rose at breakfast tines; that is, (in a parenthesis of his own) at rice or seven otclochur This translation, as a whole, does very little credit to the discretion of the learned Swede, and the part relation to eyktarstad may he cited as a specimen of the figure of speech calle& nonsense. The translation which we sug~ e has, at least,~the merit or giving an intehligiblemeaning to every part of the passage. How far or in what way it can he reconciled with the letter of the Icelandic original, we must leave it to~ the critics in that language to decide. Supposin~~ this translation to he a correct one, the word dagmdlastad would be the only one indicating the len th of the day, and this, as we have remarked in the text~ is so obscure as to throw no light whatever upon the subject. We are, therefore,. compelled to say, as we have done shove, that this celebrated and much dispute~ passage is, in our view, of no value in determinin~ the latitude of Wineland, al- though, agreeing as we do in the onclusious of the Society, that Wineland lay in about the latitude indicated by their translation of the passage, we should he very willing to have the berrefit of so decisive a piece of evidence is support of the theory~. 1838.] Testimony Examined. 153 therefore, be somewhere on the coast. Where are we to look for it? The courses and distances run, carry us directly to the south- eastern part of the coast of New England. Two days sail from Nova Scotia could not possibly have brought the navigators further south. But even if we were at liberty to include in our survey the whole coast as far as the mouth of the Chesapeake, we could not find a spot which, on the whole, corresponds better with the descrip- tion than this. Rhode Island and the neighboring islands and main have always been regarded as the Eden of the eastern States. Sheltered from the bitter easterly winds by the protecting screen of the Cape ;-enjoying, on the other si(le, a southerly breeze, raised to a more than ordinary heat by the genial warmth of the guiph stream, which is here only a hundred miles (listant from the coast, they possess a climate much milder than that of any other part of New England, and also milder than most other parts of the coast, even in more southern latitudes. The point to which the courses and distances run, naturally bring us is, therefore, the one which agrees better than any other upon the coast, in its climate, with the description given. And if this description appears a little exaggerated, as compared with the climate of even this favored region, we need not wonder, as we have already remarked, that a scene in itself so delighful, bursting in this way with all the charm of novelty, upon the eyes of our frost-bitten Northmen, should have assumed in their accounts, especially after passing through two or three generations of oral tradition, a glow beyond that of nature. The indications afforded by the courses and distances run, and by the description of the climate, point, therefore, directly to the southeastern part of New England, as the spot visited by the Northmen. The natural productions of that region fully confirm this conclusion. The fruit which chiefly attracted their attention was the grape; and the abundance of it struck them so forcibly as to characterise the face of the country. They gave it the name of Wineland. In this respect, the southeastern part of New England realizes the description given. The grape is its most abundant and remarkable fruit; and this is more particularly true of the country around Narragansett Bay. We have been informed that the forest between Providence and Taunton, is every where filled with grape vines, and in some places almost choaked up by them. On the re- discovery of the coast by the English, the abundance of grapes struck them not less forcibly than it had done the Northmen. They gave to one of the islands the name of the Vineyard, which it still remains. A remarkable proof how uniformly the abundance of grapes has been regarded as a prominent feature in the vegeta- tion of this part of the country, is afforded by the charter of Rhode 164 Discovery of Americcr by tive Northrn en. I May, Island, which enumerates the culture of this fruit, and the manu- facture of wine, as among the motives for forming the settlement. This exact concurrence of all the indications afforded by the courses and distances run, the description of the climate, and the natural products of the soil in favor of one and the same point, cannot well be accidental. The conclusion to be drawn from it is confirmed by the description given of the coast. The most prom- inent object that arrests the attention of the navigator on the coast of New England, is the promontory of Cape Cod. In the descrip- tion given by the Northmen of the coast of Wineland, the most prominent object is in like manner a promontory, denominated by them Kialarness, or Keel Cape, from its resemblance in form to the keel of a ship. When it is recollected that the ships used by the European mariners in the middle ages~ were imitated from those of the ancients, and had keels rising in a curve at the bows, like the iron of a skate, we perceive at once that Keel Cape is an appro- priate designation for the promontory in question. The coast of Kialctrness was called by the Northmen Furdustrandar,.a far extended, or as some translate it, a wondrous beach or strand, an additional feature which agrees with the geography of Cape Cod. Keel Cape is also represented as opposite to another Cape~ These coincidences would, perhaps, be considered as sufficient of themselves to identify Kialarness with Cape Cod; and when a variety of evidence, drawn from sources entirely independent of each other, leads us to look for the former on this I)art of the coast, there can remain, we think, but little if any doubt upon the sub- ject. Assuming on these grounds that Massachusetts and Rhode Island are the Wineland of the Northmen, and that Cape Cod is their Kia- larness or Keel Cape, we obtain a point of departure from which we can follow them in their subsequent course; and the correct- ness of the assumption is again established by the new coincidences that meet us at every step. After passing the long, sandy beach, the Northmen proceeded to the southwest, and reached a bay before the mouth of which was an island. Here the currents ran very strong, and the ocean was filled with islands and shoals. It is hard- ly necessary to say that this is a correct description of this part of the coast. The Society suppose that the bay alluded to is Buz- zards hay, and the island Marthas Vineyard. On one of these islands, the Northmen found such a number of birds, that they could hardly step without treading upon their eggs. One or more of the islands on this part of the coast, are now called for the same reason the Egg Islands. Proceeding farther west, they came to a river which formed a communication with an inland lake. The Society identify these with Pocasset river and Mount Hope bay. The Northmen passed up the river into the lake or bay upon the 1835.] Testintony Examinedb 166 banks of which they formed their settlement, denominated Leifs Booths. The lake or bay they called Hop or Hopi, an Icelandic word, equivalent to the English Haven. The Society identify this word with the modern name Hope, which is still attached to this place; and it is certainly a singular coincidence, if it be an acciden- tal one, that the place to which we are almost irresistibly led by an overwhelming mass of evidence from so many separate and inde- pendent sources, as the seat of the settlement of the Northmen, should still retain a name so nearly resembling that which they gave to it. Whether this coincidence can be fairly accounted for, by supposing that this name was perpetuated by tradition among some of the Northmen, who may have remained among the natives,---. whether it had been rendered familiar to the natives while the Northmen remained in their neighborhood, and afterwards remem- bered and permanently applied to the place; or whether the resem- blance is, in fact, entirely accidental, are points which we have no means of settling with certainty,, and which are not material to the leading question at issue. On the whole, the indications afforded by the courses and distan- ces run, the climate, soil, and productions of the country discovered, and the outline of the coast, seem to us to identify the Wineland of the Northmen with Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and to indi- cate the southeastern part of the coast of these States, as the place where they formed their settlements. Thus far our conclu- sions approach as nearly to certainty as perhaps could be reasona- bly expected in a case of this kind. It is impossible, of course, to feel the same assurance in regard to the minute details which nev- ertheless carry with them a great appearance of probability. III. Considering it as well established, that the Northmen visited the coast of this Continent at the commencement of the eleventh century, and formed a temporary settlement upon it, probably with- in the limits of the present state of Rhode Island, it may, perhaps, be naturally expected that some traces of their occupation should remain upon the face of the country. That none such are known to exist, has accordingly been made an objection to the credibility of the whole narrative. In reality, however, the nature of the settlements formed by the Northmen, as described in these Chroni- cles, was not such as to render it probable that any considerable remains of them would have been in existence when the country was again visited by the Europeans, five centuries afterwards. Of the several expeditions of the Northmen, that of Thorfian, which was the most important, remained only three years; none of the others more than one. The buildings which they erected during these short residences, could not well be of a very durable charac- ter, and must have disappeared entirely long before the re-discov- ery. 156 Discovery of Americct by the Northmen. [May, But though we ought not to expect to find any considerable architectural monuments of the residence of the Nortlimen in Wineland, it would, perhaps, be natural to suppose that they may have endeavored to leave behind them some permanent memorial of their presence. Navigators of all countries who touch, land upon, or temporarily occupy what they regard as a previously un- discovered territory, commonly erect some more, or less durable monument with an inscription, indicating the date and circumstan- ces of the discovery. These considerations may be thought to give some degree of antecedent probability to the explanation givcn by the Danish Society, of the celebrated inscription on Dighton Rock. The greater or less degree of importance which may be attached to this inscription, in no way affects the credibility of the general conclusions to be drawn fro~n the Chronicles, which rest, as we have shown, on evidence entirely in(lisputable. If, howevPr, it could be proved, as the Danish Society believe, that this inscription is of Norman origin, it would afford a decisive, and very curious additional confirmation of the truth of the whole history. The inscription, as most of our readers who take any interest on the subject, are probably aware, is found upon a rock lying on the east side of Taunton River, in the town of Berkeley, in Massachu- setts, opposite to Dighton, from which the rock has taken its name. The rock is about t~velve feet long, and six feet high. At high tide about two feet of the lower part are under water. It is of gray wacke, and of a bluish tinge. The weather and the flow of the tide upon the lower part of the rock, have effaced a portion of the inscription, which is evidently of great antiquity. / It has often been copied, and witb various degrees of accuracy. The most recent copy, which was made under the direction of a Committee of the Rhode Island historical Society, with great care, expressly for the use of the Danish Nntiquarian Society, is no doubt by far the n~ost accurate that has yet been taken. Engravings of this and of all the other copies are given in the volume before us. The in- scription is supposed by the Danish Society to exhibit in Roman characters, of the form used in the middle ages, the name of Thor- finn, the leader of the principal expedition of the Northmen, and in Roman numerals, the number one hundred and thirty one, which was, in fact, the number of his company at the time when the settlement was made, together with a female figure and an infant, intended, as they believe, to commemorate the birth of Thorfiuns son. In order to preclude any suspicion which might arise that the Committee, in making their copy of the inscription, had uncon- sciously accommodated it to some preconceived theory, respecting the visit of the Northmen, it may be proper to add that they were not at the time acquainted in detail with the history of the expedi- tions to Wineland; and, in particular, were not informed of the 1838.1 Testimony Examined. 157 name of the leader of the principal expedition, of the number of his men, or of the fact that he had a son born in the country. It is of course, impossible to enlarge upon this part of the subject with- out drawings, and we must therefore refer our readers for further particulars to the volume before us, where it is treated at great length. We are informed by the respectable Secretary of the Rhode Island Historical Society, Dr. Webb, that he has very re cently received a letter from Mr. Rafn, the editor of the work, in which he states that the Danish Society have succeeded in decy- phering an ancient inscription upon the Paradise Rock, in Iceland, which establishes, as he says, beyond a doubt, the European origin of the inscription at Dighton. Of the correctness of this opinion we shall be better able to judge when we receive the memoir upon the subject, which is now in a course of publication.* Such are the 1)rincipal particulars that are known to us respec- ting the discovery of America by the Northmen, so far as our limits have permitted us to go into them; and such al~e the conclu- sions in regard to their credibility, to which we have been led by the consideration which we have been able to give to this curious subject. The main facts in the narrative appear to us, as we have repeatedly remarked, to be satisfactorily attested, and we have no hesitation in receiving them as a portion of authentic history. They are in themselves probable, and are supported by as strong a body of testimony as can be produced, in favor of any historical narrative of which the scene is laid in times and countries distin- guished by an imperfect state of civilization. The identity of Wineland with Massachusetts and Rhode Island, also appears to be fully proved. Throwing out of view all the evidence of this that may be regarded as in any way doubtful, such as the length of the shortest day, the name of Mount Hope and the inscription on Dighton Rock,there is enough in the courses and distances run, the climate, soil and natural products of the country discovered, and the character of the coast to place the matter beyond contro * We have been favored, by the politeness of Dr. Webb, with a copy of this letter, which is as follows: L~xtractfroin a letter of Professor Reefs to Thomas It Webb, dated at COPENHAGEN, Sept. 14, l837. I have a remarkable piece of news to communicate to you respecting our ante- Columbian concerns. Our associate, Professor Finn Magnussen, has been so fortu- nate as to d~cypher, in a very satisfactory manner, the inscriptions in the Parodisar Ilellir, which are of historical importance. His communication on this subject will be inserted in one of the next numbers of the Annals and Memoirs. The North European origin of the North Americas mossements is thereby, is a strong degree, corroborated. In fact we may now prosolesee it indubitable. The volume before us contains an engraving of a part of the inscriptions on the Paradise Rock, and some account of their character. We wait with curiosity for the memoir of the learned Professor upon this subject. 168 SongTranslation. [May, versy. Future researches may elucidate the point still farther. In these we have reason to expect much from the learned labours of the Historical Society of Rhode Island, to whose able and intelli- gent cooperation with the Danish Antiquarian Society, we are in a great degree indebted for the new light that has been thrown by the volume before us, upon this interesting episode in the ancient annals of America. To both these institutions, and particularly to Mr. Rafn and Dr. Webb, who have had the principal agency in carry- ing on the work in their respective countries, we offer with confi. dence the grateful acknowledgements of the lovers of geographical and antiquarian learning. SONG. TO A LADY ON HER WEARING A GARLAND OF TIlE FLOWERS CALLED BELLE DE NUIT. Que faut ii soupqonner du choix Que votre humeur, toujours badine, A fait encore cette fois, Pour orner sa grace lutine? Belle de nuit nest pas le mot Quon attribue k taut de charmes. Belle de jour nous eeit plut6t Forcd de vous rendre les armes. Mais je vous devine ~ mon tour, Vous voulez, fr& iche comme Flore, Quon vous adore tout le jour, Et la nuit quon y rove encore. TRANSLATION. What is tbis fair friend of ours Thinking of when choosing flowers? Belle de jour would surely be Better far than Belle de nuit, For a garland to adorn Beauty fresher than the morn. But with all her sober seeming, She is often bent on scheming;

168 SongTranslation. [May, versy. Future researches may elucidate the point still farther. In these we have reason to expect much from the learned labours of the Historical Society of Rhode Island, to whose able and intelli- gent cooperation with the Danish Antiquarian Society, we are in a great degree indebted for the new light that has been thrown by the volume before us, upon this interesting episode in the ancient annals of America. To both these institutions, and particularly to Mr. Rafn and Dr. Webb, who have had the principal agency in carry- ing on the work in their respective countries, we offer with confi. dence the grateful acknowledgements of the lovers of geographical and antiquarian learning. SONG. TO A LADY ON HER WEARING A GARLAND OF TIlE FLOWERS CALLED BELLE DE NUIT. Que faut ii soupqonner du choix Que votre humeur, toujours badine, A fait encore cette fois, Pour orner sa grace lutine? Belle de nuit nest pas le mot Quon attribue k taut de charmes. Belle de jour nous eeit plut6t Forcd de vous rendre les armes. Mais je vous devine ~ mon tour, Vous voulez, fr& iche comme Flore, Quon vous adore tout le jour, Et la nuit quon y rove encore. TRANSLATION. What is tbis fair friend of ours Thinking of when choosing flowers? Belle de jour would surely be Better far than Belle de nuit, For a garland to adorn Beauty fresher than the morn. But with all her sober seeming, She is often bent on scheming;

168 SongTranslation. [May, versy. Future researches may elucidate the point still farther. In these we have reason to expect much from the learned labours of the Historical Society of Rhode Island, to whose able and intelli- gent cooperation with the Danish Antiquarian Society, we are in a great degree indebted for the new light that has been thrown by the volume before us, upon this interesting episode in the ancient annals of America. To both these institutions, and particularly to Mr. Rafn and Dr. Webb, who have had the principal agency in carry- ing on the work in their respective countries, we offer with confi. dence the grateful acknowledgements of the lovers of geographical and antiquarian learning. SONG. TO A LADY ON HER WEARING A GARLAND OF TIlE FLOWERS CALLED BELLE DE NUIT. Que faut ii soupqonner du choix Que votre humeur, toujours badine, A fait encore cette fois, Pour orner sa grace lutine? Belle de nuit nest pas le mot Quon attribue k taut de charmes. Belle de jour nous eeit plut6t Forcd de vous rendre les armes. Mais je vous devine ~ mon tour, Vous voulez, fr& iche comme Flore, Quon vous adore tout le jour, Et la nuit quon y rove encore. TRANSLATION. What is tbis fair friend of ours Thinking of when choosing flowers? Belle de jour would surely be Better far than Belle de nuit, For a garland to adorn Beauty fresher than the morn. But with all her sober seeming, She is often bent on scheming; 1835.] Song~ 169 And, be sure, her plan is this, Roguish hussey that she is: She would have us,well she may, Dancing round her all the day; And she tells us covertly, By the mystic Belle de nuit, We must also,is it right? Dream about her all the night. ANOTHER. TO H. I. Oh fairer, fresher than the face Of morn when first, in maiden grace, With half averted eyes, Oer lawns besprent with dewy drops, Or on the misty mountain tops, She sees the sun arise! Say why those radiant locks enfold Within their mazy threads of gold, The pale faced belle of night. When Floras most resplendent glow Would scarcely match that marble brow, And eye of sapphire light. Ah! might I hope that mystic flower That suits so ill thy beautys power, Were meant to be the sign Of some fond time when twilight pale, Sweet Saint! should lift the virgin veil From loves propitious shrine! Too daring thought! then let me rest, Content on fair Illusions breast, To slumber life away. Content,perforce,at least by night To clasp in dreams the vision bright I worship all the day.

1835.] Song~ 169 And, be sure, her plan is this, Roguish hussey that she is: She would have us,well she may, Dancing round her all the day; And she tells us covertly, By the mystic Belle de nuit, We must also,is it right? Dream about her all the night. ANOTHER. TO H. I. Oh fairer, fresher than the face Of morn when first, in maiden grace, With half averted eyes, Oer lawns besprent with dewy drops, Or on the misty mountain tops, She sees the sun arise! Say why those radiant locks enfold Within their mazy threads of gold, The pale faced belle of night. When Floras most resplendent glow Would scarcely match that marble brow, And eye of sapphire light. Ah! might I hope that mystic flower That suits so ill thy beautys power, Were meant to be the sign Of some fond time when twilight pale, Sweet Saint! should lift the virgin veil From loves propitious shrine! Too daring thought! then let me rest, Content on fair Illusions breast, To slumber life away. Content,perforce,at least by night To clasp in dreams the vision bright I worship all the day. 160 [May, PRESCOTTS FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.* WE have delayed a notice of this~ important work from time to time, that we might be better enabled to give it that elaborate atten- tion, in our pages, to which it was entitled from its conspicuous merit ;but though some months have elapsed since its publication, and though the discernment of the public, outstepping the cautious approbation of the critic, has already conferred on it the honors of a second edition, we have still been compelled to postpone the grati- fication of fulfilling our original intention, until the expression of our opinion, at least, can no longer be withheld, in justice to a work which reflects lustre on the country, and to which a high rank in the great historic school of the English Languageespecially rich as it is in Spanish subjectshas already been accorded. Abstain- ing, therefore, from all that tempting range of observation, which would be incident to the subject in a regular criticism, we shall merely, and in a very hasty manner, throw before our readers the general opinions which have been suggested by a perusal of the volumes. Assuredly our country is destined to excel in letters. Its freedom invites unprejudiced investigation in every science; our citizens are by birth friends of free inquiry, rivals of Descartes; disciplined from the first in the exercise of reason, and indifferent to past idola- tries. Here the political institutions stimulate the mind to a bold pursuit of speculative truth; and, in the arts, genius may be im- pelled to the creation of beautiful forms by the pleasing hope that its productions will win universal homage. The intellectual powers will renew their strength in the consciousness of public sympathy, and run a glorious career amidst the applauses of a people. Our countrymen have thus far been distinguished above other nations in the earnest developement of the material resources of our land. We are now gasping under the lassitude that has resulted from the intense efforts of unparalleled enterprise. But there is an analogy between the active and the speculative powers of men in masses; healthy industry is follo~ved by wakeful reflection; the national mind is aroused to the contemplation of truth, not less than to the beneficent purpose of connecting rivers or subduing the wil- derness; the moral life of the people, quickened by youthful pride, and excited by competition, seeks to express itself in a literature of its own. The result will be a consequence not of patronage, not of rich rewards, but of an instinctive passion. As naturally as * History of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic. By WILLIAM H. PaEscoTT. Second Edition. Boston, 1838.

160 [May, PRESCOTTS FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.* WE have delayed a notice of this~ important work from time to time, that we might be better enabled to give it that elaborate atten- tion, in our pages, to which it was entitled from its conspicuous merit ;but though some months have elapsed since its publication, and though the discernment of the public, outstepping the cautious approbation of the critic, has already conferred on it the honors of a second edition, we have still been compelled to postpone the grati- fication of fulfilling our original intention, until the expression of our opinion, at least, can no longer be withheld, in justice to a work which reflects lustre on the country, and to which a high rank in the great historic school of the English Languageespecially rich as it is in Spanish subjectshas already been accorded. Abstain- ing, therefore, from all that tempting range of observation, which would be incident to the subject in a regular criticism, we shall merely, and in a very hasty manner, throw before our readers the general opinions which have been suggested by a perusal of the volumes. Assuredly our country is destined to excel in letters. Its freedom invites unprejudiced investigation in every science; our citizens are by birth friends of free inquiry, rivals of Descartes; disciplined from the first in the exercise of reason, and indifferent to past idola- tries. Here the political institutions stimulate the mind to a bold pursuit of speculative truth; and, in the arts, genius may be im- pelled to the creation of beautiful forms by the pleasing hope that its productions will win universal homage. The intellectual powers will renew their strength in the consciousness of public sympathy, and run a glorious career amidst the applauses of a people. Our countrymen have thus far been distinguished above other nations in the earnest developement of the material resources of our land. We are now gasping under the lassitude that has resulted from the intense efforts of unparalleled enterprise. But there is an analogy between the active and the speculative powers of men in masses; healthy industry is follo~ved by wakeful reflection; the national mind is aroused to the contemplation of truth, not less than to the beneficent purpose of connecting rivers or subduing the wil- derness; the moral life of the people, quickened by youthful pride, and excited by competition, seeks to express itself in a literature of its own. The result will be a consequence not of patronage, not of rich rewards, but of an instinctive passion. As naturally as * History of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic. By WILLIAM H. PaEscoTT. Second Edition. Boston, 1838. 1838.] Prescotts Ferdinand and Isabella. 161 the bird sings, or the flower opens, the genius of our institutions will impress itself upon the arts, on philosophy, poetry, and history, not less than on the face of nature; and as our ships gather in our harbours the produce of every lime, so the American mind will ex- tend its researches over the world, and accept every truth, whether it lies hid in a superstition, or is plainly revealed to the senses; whether it lurks under a symbol, or is clearly discerned by reason. The ncw era is approaching. In the creation of our earth, the progress of existence may be traced from chaos to a finished world, The land that emerged from the dividing seas, the verdure that namelled the fields, the lights that were kindled in the firmament, he myriads of creatures that moved in the waters, the beasts that thronged the forests and waked the first echoes on the virgin hills, all were glorious in their kind; yet were but the harbinger of a greater work, the overshadowing of humanity, the pledge of im- mortal mind that was to emanate from God. So it is now with our country. The vast activity of industry, the expanded commerce, he channels of communication that unite remote seas, and connect istant vallies, the infinite and varied zeal in the pursuit of material wealth and the improvement of nature, are but the pledges of the more exalted creafons that are yet to come. The country is con- scious of its mission; t has thus far been engaged in action; it has not yet breathed forth its soul in language nor expressed its character ~n the arts. But the United States, the pioneer of Democracy, the foremost in that career of social improvement into which every nation is now eagerly rushing, will as certainly have a literature f its own, as it has had constitutions. The same triumphant idea, which expresses itself in our history and in our fundamental laws, will animate the scholar and inspire the bard. But our literature does not exist merely in promise. The work of Mr. PRESCOTT would do honor to any country, and command respect even in the oldes haunts of science. A strong personal interest attaches to it, for it was begun under circumstances which might have daunted the boldest will. Milton attempted the history of his country, but abandoned it in despair to commune with the heavenly visitant, whom he saw by the aid of eyes planted within. And now at this time the unfortunate Thierry, the picturesque his- torian of the invasion of England by the Normans, is languishing under the loss of sight, and submitting to the pressure of poverty, has reluctantly abandoned his cherished pursuits. About twelve years ago Mr. Prescott, in the prime of manhood, with every thing about him and within him to make the career of a man of letters de- lightful, selected the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, as a subject for history. The selection was a most fortunate one. But just as he had made arrangements, early in 1826, for obtaining the neces- sary materials from Madrid, he was deprived, hopelessly as it seems, VOL. II. NO. vi. L 162 Prescotts Ferdinctud and Isct& ellw. [May~ of the use of his eyes for all purposes of reading and writing; while his design required the consultation of manuscripts, the diii. gent study of works in the various languages, the careful, and repeat- ed attention of authorities. Well might he have paused, as he read in Johnsons life of Milton, that his purpose was not easy nor hardly possible. But the distrust of the critic did but stimulate to the de- sire of victory; and the history of letters scarce presents a. similar example where a buoyant spirit, happy in its own sincerity, and confiding in its o~vn moral force, has cheerfully gathered together its energies, and w~th light heart, but resolute, will, advanced to overcome difficulties, to which it would not have been deemed a weakness to have yielded. By the assistance of readers the work was continued. The closest habits of attention, the nicest exactness in discerning differences, were necessarily established, as the author was led blindfold not through the pleasant path of literature, but across dreary wastes, the diffuse quartos of Castilian chroniclers, the heavy details of wise, deliberate, pedantic critics., It is to be observed, that from the first line of the three volumes of this work to the last, there is not a single trace of despondency~ not a single word which would indicate that the author had ever, at any moment, yielded to gloomy feeling. Had things rested thus,. we should have admired the energy of his mind; we should have liberally paid a just tribute to his beautiful character ; but we should have feared that truth might sometimes have escaped the observa- tion of a writer who relied on the senses of others; and should have read his work with interest, yet with diffidence. After perse- vering for some years, says Mr. Prescott, my eyes, by the bless- ing of Providence, recovered sufficient strength to allow me to use them, with tolerable freedom, in the prosecution of my labours, and in the revision of all previously written ; and far from deprecating the severity of criticism, he may claim for himself a discipline in circumspection, a firmness of application, an. extraordinary exercise of memory, which, with his trials,, his, competitors mu~t. fnrego. The manner in which the work is written corresponds. to the cir- eumstances of its origin. More than ten years labour has been em- ployed to mature it. Each chapter is the result of long application,. giving evidence that no expense has been spared in gathering mate~ rials, no indu try in appropriating them. Let any American scholar turn, for instance, to the chapter on the literature of the Saracens, and ask himself how long a period of study would be required to prepare for writing it. The candour of judgment which pervades the work, is worthy of highest commendations. The mind of the author reflects objects without distorting them,like a pure mirror, which no breath of prejudice dims, no bigotry tarnishes; and though here and there a sentiment may be found, which, tried by the de- mocratic test, would not bear an analysis, yet a manly love of free- 1838. Prescotts Ferdinand and Isabella. 163 dom often finds a bold expression in his pages; he pleads for pro- gress; and with sincerity, and in language which would satisfy the most decided Loco Foco, exclaims of revolutions, that society had better be hurried forward o the wings of the tempest, than stag- ate in a deathlike calm. rfhe style of Mr. Prescott is evidently he expression of his ow character. As for style, said Lessing to some conceited critic, every good writers style is as much his own as his nose. The manner of Mr. Prescott is clear and grace- ful ; the poet compares Paris going forth to battle to the war-horse prancing to the rivers side ; and the historian of the Catholic kings n the mdst of erudition, writes with the freedom and spirit of ani- mated con ersation. Yet where grave topics arrest attention, his tyle rises, and in the chapters, for instance, where general views are given, in the preface also, and in the close of the work, pos- sesses at once grace and clearness, elegance and dignity. The topic is happily chosen. What country has a more varied historical interest than Spain? There hordes of vagrant nations pitched their tents in the days of more than Cimmerian darkness; there the Celts forced their way, to puzzle antiquaries and perplex philologists; thither the merchant princes of Tyre sent their ships in quest of gain; there the Carthaginian was attracted by mines of silver, and struggled for conquests and colonies; there the Roman eagle led the veterans of the republic of warriors, and wrested the land from the republic of traders; there the different factions of the Roman State entrenched themselves in fastnesses, and after de- stroying the natives, fertilized the soil with the blood of one another; there the cross was planted by the side of the Roman law, and its mission was explained in the Roman tongue; there a Roman rebel welcomed a horde of German barbarians; Vandals made their home in Gallicia and on the banks of Guadalquiver; Goths from Mol- davia and Wallachia, crossing the Danube, were tossed from nation to nation, till they broke beyond the Pyrenees; there the children of Arabia, fanning the flames of domestic discord, carried the cre- scent xvith the culture and the language of the East; there the Jews, still worshipping the God that revealed himself at Sinai, insinuated themselves among the mixed population, and connected by trade the descendants of races which sprung from Scandinavia and Tar- tary, from Africa and the deserts of Arabia. Even the blackamoor had a home in the Spanish peninsula; and if the minarets of Ma- homet rose in Granada as an emblem of the East, the lands of Se- ville, before the days of Ferdinand, could not unfrequently show the huts of the negro slave, The epoch selected by Mr. Prescott is the most interesting crisis in the history of Spain, the period when these various elements were exposed to modifications; the period of conflict between Sara- cen a:A Coth, between Jew and Christian; the period of conflict 1G4 Prescott~s Ferdinand anJ Isabella. [May, between nascent free inquiry and intellectual despotism; the period of conflict between monarchy and aristocracy; the period of unity in the Spanish monarchy, followed by an activity of enterprise that discovered a new world; the period when the revolutions that cen- turies had prepared were rapidly realized. The work opens by an elaborate and carefully written analysis of the previous history of the~Castilian monarchy, and of the early constitution of Aragon. It is a new form of combat of feudal and municipal liberties against monarchy, and delineates with distinct- ness the outlines of the political system which Spain inherited from the middle age. The main subject then divides itself naturally into two parts ; of which the first embraces the period when the different kingdoms of Spain were first united undcr one monarchy, and a thorough reform was introduced into their internal administration. This portion of the work exhibits most fully the domestic policy of Ferdinand and Isabella; the series of strange events which raised Isabella to the throne of Castile; the methods of governmen tadopt- ed in that kingdom; the sad establishment of the Modern Inquisi- tion. To give additional interest to the war of Granada, the histo-